Shabda Cayaniká Part 4

Originally published in Bengali
   © 1986 by Ánanda Márga Pracáraka Saḿgha (Central)

© 2007 by Ánanda Márga Pracáraka Saḿgha (Central)

Registered office: Anandanagar
                              P.O. Baglata, Dist. Purulia, W.B.
                              India
Camp office:          527 VIP Nagar
                              Kolkata 700100
                              India

All rights reserved by the publisher. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.

ISBN 81-7252-258-4

Translated from the original Bengali by
   Prof. (Retd.) Mohit Ray, Prof. (Retd.) Visvanath Chatterjee
   and Deváshiisa

Published by:
Publications Secretary (Central)
Ananda Marga Publications

Printed in India by:

Ác. Piiyúśánanda Avt.

and

Shree Kali Art Press
209 C Bidhan Sarani
Kolkata 700006

	Shabda Cayaniká Part 4

I offer my respectful salutations to
the sacred memory of those
who have illumined the path of human progress through
literature, culture, intellect and erudition.

Following in their footsteps,
Shrii Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar

	Shabda Cayaniká Part 4

On the 8th of September, 1985, the author, and founder of Ananda Marga, Shrii Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar, began an extraordinary series of Sunday lectures in Bengali that would eventually fill a total of twenty-six volumes over the next five years. The title he gave to this series was Shabda Cayaniká, which translates into English as “A Collection of Words”. As the title suggests, each discourse consists of a discussion of a certain number of words from the Bengali language, beginning, in the first discourse, with the first letter of the Bengali alphabet, a, and continuing on alphabetically. What results, then, is neither an encyclopaedia, nor a dictionary, but something unique in the fields of scholarship and literature.

Ostensibly, Shabda Cayaniká is a series devoted to the linguistics and philology of the Bengali language, but in reality it is much more than that. The author uses the platform of the word as a point of departure to take the reader on a journey through all the varied landscapes of human knowledge – history, geography, medicine, science, art, religion, philosophy, etc. – and in the process adds the indelible stamp of his own unique wisdom, enriching our experience with new ideas and enabling us to see our human heritage in a way we have never been able to before.

Like most great authors, he is a consummate storyteller, using a seemingly inexhaustible supply of anecdotes, personal experiences and stories to capture the reader’s interest and lead him or her effortlessly through the garden of human knowledge. Along the way the author refines and develops a language that is the world’s fifth most widely spoken and the closest living language to its great classical ancestor, Sanskrit.

The English versions of Shabda Cayaniká Part 1 and Part 2, the first two books of this series, were published in 1996. The English Shabda Cayaniká Part 3 was published in 1999. Thereafter the publication of this important series could not immediately be continued for various reasons, but requests for further parts of the series kept pouring in from our readers. We have therefore decided to publish several of the remaining parts of Shabda Cayaniká each year in order to complete the series within a reasonable period of time.

As mentioned earlier, the author of this series has touched on a vast number of subjects of human knowledge. Therefore in this book we have provided an index of words and subjects at the end to help researchers and the general reader.

Weighing the feedback of our readers and all other considerations, we decided to print Parts 4 and 5 of Shabda Cayaniká in one volume and to use a bigger and more conventional book size than had been used previously for the Shabda Cayaniká series. Henceforward, the various parts of the series will all be published in this manner.

Footnotes by the translators have all been signed “–Trans.” Unsigned footnotes are those of the author.

Many readers are concerned that the author’s discourses, as published, should adhere as closely as possible to the precise wording the author used in speaking. For this reason, in the case of discourses given originally in English, the editors do not alter pronouns and other terms which the author in his life time considered “common-gender” words. As the author once said, “You know, ‘man’ is not only masculine gender, ‘man’ is common gender also. ‘Man is mortal’ – here ‘man’ means both male and female.”

The author was a natural advocate of women’s rights and on at least one occasion indicated that “lopsided justice” in language should be eliminated at some future date. In keeping with his guideline and with present-day trends, it is our policy in the case of translated discourses (where the published wording will necessarily be that of the translators) to use gender-neutral language.

The author was of the strong opinion that the Bengali alphabet should provide for a distinction between two slightly-different sounds, which he called “initial-la” and “end-lra”. To make possible this distinction, he proposed that the initial-la should be represented by an existing alphabetical character (ল), while for the end-lra there should be a new character (ল়) formed by adding a dot below the initial-la character. In the roman system invented by the author, the two sounds are rendered by la and lra respectively. Though in the original Bengali Shabda Cayaniká series the new character has been used wherever the lra sound occurs, in these English translations we have avoided using lra each time that the sound occurs (so that words familiar to speakers of Bengali should not be unrecognizable to them), and we provide instead, especially for the benefit of researchers, a list of all words in each book which should be read with the end-lra sound. For this book the words are as follows:

	spelled as	should be read as
Discourse 23	kála	kálra
Discourse 24	káliká káliuṋga	kálriká kálriuṋga
Discourse 25	kálii	kálrii
Discourse 26	kilaka kishala kishalay kiila	kilraka kishalra kishalray kiilra

Square brackets [   ] in the text are used to indicate translations by the editors or other editorial insertions. Round brackets (   ) indicate a word or words originally given by the author.

The author used a certain shorthand for explaining the etymologies of words. Under this system, a minus sign (–) follows a prefix, and a plus sign (+) precedes a suffix. Thus ava – tr + ghaiṋ = avatára can be read, “the root tr prefixed by ava and suffixed by ghaiṋ becomes avatára.”

Acknowledgements

This book is the result of the assistance and the support lent by many persons in various ways. Their sincere efforts are helping us develop an ever more professional system of work, so that the immense contribution of Shrii P.R. Sarkar can be presented in the best possible manner. Some esteemed readers, or better to say, lovers, of Shrii P.R. Sarkar’s books have come forward to make arrangement for the continuous publication of his books over the coming years; thanks to them, progress is being made in building up a committed and dependable sales network. Any interested person can come forward to participate in this effort.

Ideally every new book translation undergoes initially a draft by the main translator, then “first editing”, then “second editing”, then final verification. Other important functions include coordination of the different steps, and the development and management of a sales network. Some of those who have contributed to these efforts: Dr. Mohit Ray, retired professor of English, translated all seven discourses of Shabda Cayaniká Part 4, and the first editing of those discourses was done by Ácárya Priyashivánanda Avadhúta. Gáyattrii Ghista and Táraka Ghista did the second editing of those discourses. Dr. Visvanath Chatterjee, retired professor of English, translated all seven discourses of Shabda Cayaniká Part 5, and the first editing of those discourses was done by Ácárya Priyashivánanda Avadhúta. Deváshiiśa did the second editing and first verification of those discourses. Mádhava Basak did typing, layout work and DTP work for the entire book, as well as related office work. Kirit Dave took on sales management and coordination work.

We are also indebted to many others who gave constant encouragement and vital input. Final verification and parts of other tasks were done by the staff of Ananda Marga Publications.

If any defects be found, readers may be sure that they do not derive from the illustrious author, nor are they the responsibility of those who contributed to the work; rather they are the responsibility of the Publications staff alone.

Kirit Dave also prepared the cover page of the book. We like to express our sincere gratitude to Ms. Kate B., USA, for her kind gift of allowing us to use the photograph for the front cover of this book. The photograph, protected by the copyright laws, is the property of Ms. Kate, and may not be reproduced without her expressed permission.

Chapter 1	Shabda Cayaniká Part 4

Káca

Káca-káiṋcanasaḿsargát marakatamańi dyutim;
Tathá satsannidhánena múrkho yátipraviińatám.

Just as a scintillation like that of an emerald occurs when glass comes in contact with gold, similarly even a fool becomes a wise man if in contact with a good soul. The verbal root of kaiṋc/kac (kaci) means “to shine”, “to tie up”. Both the words káca and káiṋca are derived by adding the suffix ghaiṋ to the verbal root kac. Both the words etymologically mean “something that shines” or “something that ties up”. Although etymologically both the words káca and káiṋca are correct, the word káiṋca in Sanskrit has a very limited use. The word that is actually in use, so to speak, is káca. But the tadbhava derivative [word derived from Sanskrit in changed form] of káiṋca is káṋc. The word is quite prevalent in Bengali and many other Indian languages. So if we write káca that will be a tatsama word [Sanskrit loanword] and if we write káṋc that will be a derivative word. But both have the same meaning. In its common usage, the word káca would mean:

1. Any shining alkaline entity.

2. The ashes of a burnt alkaline object.

3. The third meaning of káca, for which káṋc is more commonly used, is “glass” in English and siisá in Urdu and Persian. It should be borne in mind that in Urdu, siisá also means káca, as a glass object is described as siise kii ciij [object made of glass]. But in Bengali siisá means “lead”.

4. Another meaning of káca is sphat́ika [“thick glass”], or what is called “crystal” in English. What is “clear as glass” is called “crystal-clear”. Here we should bear in mind that India has been familiar with káca for a long time, from the pre-Mahábhárata age, in fact.

   Maydánav (Mayaráśt́ra > Mayrát́t́ha > Merát́h – in English it is wrongly spelt as “Meerut”⁽¹⁾) built a palace made of crystal for the king, Yudhisthira. The courtyard of that crystal palace appeared to be filled with water. In order to avoid wetting his loincloth Duryodhana lifted it up above his knees. Many people present there could not help laughing on seeing Duryodhana’s discomfiture. Duryodhana reacted sharply to the derisive laughter of the people; he felt anguished and insulted and vowed to himself to take revenge.

   India has been making crystal for a long time. In Sanskrit literature there are many references to crystal, but it was not invented in India. It is said that some Phoenician merchants were travelling to a far-off land in connection with their business. On the way they once prepared their food by building a fire on the sand with alkaline wood. After cooking they noticed that the mixture of alkali and sand had produced a shining material near the site of the fire. This is how crystal was invented.

   The English word “glass” is derived from the Sanskrit word káiṋca. Since ancient times, crystal has been used in India for medicine bottles, wine glasses and chandeliers.

5. Another meaning of káca is mańikác, or quartz. As a mineral metal it has been available in many parts of India since ancient times as evidenced by the fact that quartz has been used for decoration and ornaments since that time period. In Bengal, quartz is available in Bankura and Purulia in some quantity.

6. The optical nerve is also called káca.

7. The diseases that damage or affect the optical nerve are also called káca-rog.

8. Another meaning of the word káca is “to bind” or “to tie up”. In ancient times the women referred to the braiding of hair as veńii-kác.

9. If a flower or ribbon or any other attractive object swings at the end of a women’s braid as a decoration, that is also called káca.

10. Gálá, or “lac”, is called lákśá in chaste Bengali. The word gálá is derived from the Sanskrit word galanam which etymologically means “that which can be easily melted”. The word láhá has come from the Sanskrit word lákśá. In ancient Bengal, particularly in the Ráŕh region, lac was produced in huge quantity. Production continues even now, and there is full potential for it to continue in future. The merchants of Bengal who used to export lac therefore acquired “Láhá” as their title, or surname. Although there is vast scope to increase the volume of production of lac in Bengal, particularly in the Ráŕh region, it is not effectively realized. The reason is that its production depends upon global demand. Like mica, global demand for lac is very limited. There is no specific large industry that uses lac or mica [as its raw material]. Both the industry and its products suffer whenever there is lack of global demand, and the same situation is prevalent even today. In any case, as in English we use the word “tusk” for the tooth of an elephant but use the word “ivory” while referring to an object made from the elephant tusk, similarly in Sanskrit, while “lac” is called lákśá, a lac product is called jatu.⁽²⁾ Most of you are aware of the incident of the burning of jatugrha [house made of lac] in the Mahábhárata during the period when the Pandavas were living incognito. Similarly, if something is fixed or sealed with lac, then the lac used in the seal is called káca. Remember that “seal” is not a Bengali word; it is an English loanword; the word mohar is also not Bengali, it is Persian; the word cháp [mohar and chap both mean “seal”] is also not Bengali; it is Portuguese. The Sanskrit word corresponding to siilmohar is mudráuṋkan.

11. Káca also means “silken handkerchief”.

Kácana

As we obtain both káca and káiṋca by adding the suffix ghaiṋ to kaci, similarly by adding the suffix lyut́ in its elongated form, we obtain both kácana and káiṋcana. But both forms have the same meaning. Kácana etymologically means “ribbon or rope used for tying” or “to make something valuable”. In its extended form, kácana means the following:

1. Any kind of ribbon, tag or lace (kácanáḿshu, that is, “a silken ribbon”).

2. The tape with which you tie up an office file is also called kácana in Bengali. In this connection we should bear in mind that in ancient times, in fact, until some nine hundred years ago, Sanskrit was the official language in many parts of India. That is why many official words are Sanskrit words.

3. The ribbon that women use in doing their hair is also called kácana.

4. In Sanskrit another meaning of kácana is “something attached to any object”; thus, for example, if three letters are attached to another letter we call them “enclosures”. In Bengali it is kácana.

5. The flat file in which something else is tied up is called kácaniká in chaste Bengali.

6. The flags used to mark certain pages to call the special attention of higher authorities are also called kácaná. (For example, “Please see flag on page A, page B”).

7. The file in which government documents are kept is also called in chaste Bengali as well as in Sanskrit, kácagucchiká or by its abbreviated form in Sanskrit, kága. You can easily call an office file a kága.

Káiṋcana

The word is formed by adding the elongated form of the suffix lyut́ to kaci and etymologically means “shining object” or “an object to ensnare somebody in illusion”. Káiṋcana in its extended sense means the following:

1. Gold: its synonyms are hema, svarńa, suvarńa, kańaka, hirańa and jámbunada, as all essentially mean “shining object”. Except that the word jámbunada actually means “that which is found in the rivers of Jambudviip” [ancient name of India].

2. The second meaning of káiṋcana is “golden foil” or “an attractive object of golden colour”.

3. The third meaning of káiṋcana is the káiṋcana flower [Todalia asiatica] that blooms upon the advent of spring with the end of winter.

4. Two other meanings of káiṋcana are aparimeya and aparimápya – “wealth” and “magnificence”. Aparimeya means “what cannot be measured” and aparimápya means “what cannot be got measured” (causative form). It is to be remembered that the two words are not exactly synonymous.

5. When boiled and dried turmeric is turned into paste for use as a spice, then that turmeric paste or turmeric water is called káiṋcana. But in this case the word should be used in feminine gender, which means its form should be similar to that of the word kaiṋcanii. The pat́ol broth [wax-gourd curry preparation] which is used as a diet for sick persons in some parts of Bengal is called pat́ol-káiṋcanii.

6. Another meaning of the word káiṋcana is ábharańa or ábhúśańa, or “ornament”. It should be borne in mind that the Sanskrit word gátrábharańa [gátra + ábharańa] evolved into gahaná in Bengali. Nowadays we have moved one step further and changed gahaná to gayná.

7. In ancient times, in order to heighten the beauty of an already beautiful object, people used to pin it to another beautiful object. In the course of time the pin came to be referred to as káiṋcana. Here the word “pin” refers to all kinds of pins and safety pins.

8. In the course of constant erosion, a mountain surface along with its essential components eventually breaks down into sand or silicon, and sometimes into girimáti (ebony). The beauty of ebony is very unique; káiṋcana means “any kind of ebony”.

9. Many people believe that excess of acidity in the blood leads to rheumatism. This rheumatism cannot be cured fully by the external application of any medicine, which only gives temporary relief. In addition to a good ointment [used externally] if one takes more food containing a high degree of alkalinity (generally food having an astringent taste is highly alkaline), gout can be permanently cured. Here we are talking particularly about rheumatism in the joints, or arthritis.

10. Of the ointments which are used for massage in the case of rheumatism, the best ointments contain the dhaturá [Datura metal, or thorn apple] as an ingredient. Although the thorny dhaturá is somewhat poisonous as a food item, it gives good results when externally applied. Since the use of dhaturá-massage enhances the beauty or the golden glow of the body, dhaturá is also called káiṋcana. All types of dhaturá have this medicinal property; but it is primarily found in the black dhaturá.

11. The buds of certain flowers like the lotus or the water lily have long stamens. Although this stamen does not always have the colour of gold, it generally has a golden tint. The golden pollen stamen of the white lotus look very beautiful. These stamen of the white lotus serve as antidotes to snake venom. Since ancient times the vaedyas [physicians and practitioners of indigenous folk medicine] and witch doctors have been using these stamen. The stamen of a lotus is called káiṋcana.

    The floral nectar lying on the body of the stamen, which is converted by bees into honey, is also known as padmamadhu [“lotus honey”]. According to Ayurveda, “lotus honey” is the best medicine for diseases of the eye.

12. You know that the campá flower [Michelia a flower of the magnolia family], has many species; some trees are very small while others are quite tall. Most of the campaka flowers, except the nágacampaka, nágeshvara [Meshua ferra], nandanacampaka and a few others, have a charming fragrance. Of the tall campaka trees, the flowers of nágeshvaracampaka are as attractive in colour as they are in fragrance. Another name for nágeshvaracampaka is nágakeshara.

    The origin of nágakeshara is the land of Ráŕh. In ancient times on the undulating riparian lands of this region, there were forests of very tall campaka trees. Those trees have become nearly extinct now. But still some survive. At one time, a vast expanse of nágakeshara forest stretched along both banks of the Ajay River. The name nágeshvara was very common in those days in Bengal and Magadh. Satyendranath Dutta has immortalized nágakeshara in a poem. This nágakeshara is also known as káiṋcana.

13. You have seen that in order to keep an object in its proper place, people use a clip to fasten it. This clip is also called káiṋcana. After clipping two pieces of paper together I can say, “I have fastened two papers together with a káiṋcana.”

14. In ancient times, at the slightest opportunity, people used to perform sacrificial rites. When building a fire on such occasions, they preferred the wood of the yajiṋad́umur, a tree bearing large figs. That is why in Sanskrit yajiṋad́umur [Ficus racamosa] has many synonyms. The ripe fruit of a yajiṋad́umur (when it has the colour of gold) is called káiṋcana.

15. Before it is ripe, a jackfruit [when its outer colour is green] has an internal colour of pale yellow or the colour of butter. When ripe, that colour turns golden. (There arc red jackfruits also; but they never turn completely red.) As a jackfruit is called káṋt́ál in Bengali, or kańt́akiiphalam in Sanskrit, because it has káṋt́á or thorns at the root, similarly on account of its golden pulp it is also called káiṋcanaphalam. The word káiṋcana in itself would mean a ripe yajiṋad́umur, but when the phalam is added to the word káiṋcana, it then means “ripe jackfruit”. A khájákáṋt́ál or less juicy variety of jackfruit is called kańt́akiiphalam or káiṋcanaphalam, while the juicy variety is called rasakańt́akiiphalam. Any ripe jackfruit (not the green one) is also called panasa. In Oriya and Marathi the word panasa is used for all kinds of jackfruits.

16. Although the colour of the pulp of a lichee is not as golden as that of a jackfruit, the lichee is also called káiṋcana on account of its thorny exterior. Here, however, the word phal or fruit is not added to the word káiṋcana. Since the word is considered to be of feminine gender, we can use the word káiṋcaná for lichee (but not káiṋcanii – káiṋcanii means turmeric paste or turmeric paste water).

17. The ribbon with which women tie up their braids is called kácana. They use hairpins to secure the chignon after the broach has been fastened onto it. This hairpin is also called káiṋcana. But the word is of feminine gender, so it will be káiṋcaná (not káṋcanii).

18. In Bengal when a man wears a dhoti, the cloth on the right side is plaited and tucked under the navel. The left part of the dhoti is tucked into the dhoti behind, exactly at the point opposite the navel. The part in front, which is plaited and tucked below the navel, is called kuiṋcitá, which means “that which has been wrinkled or plaited”. The word koṋcá is derived from kuiṋcitá. The part that is tucked at the back is called káiṋcaná (the feminine form of káiṋcana). The colloquial form of káiṋcaná is káṋcá. It is desirable that we should not write káṋchá, because the word káiṋcana does not have cha in it; it has ca.

    If the koṋcá or the plaited part of the dhoti is passed between the legs and tucked at the back, then that style of wearing a dhoti is called málkoṋcá. The word mál means malla, that is, a warrior. This style of tightly wearing the dhoti is used when fighting with sticks and weapons and for any activity that requires quick movement. For this reason, it has been in vogue since ancient times.

    Though slightly irrelevant, it may be mentioned incidentally that the word kárpás means a thin sock. Karpás (kr + pás = karpás) means “cotton”. Many people, by mistake, use the word kárpás to mean kápás cotton. That is not correct. A thick sock is called kárpat́. Karpat́ means cloth. Kr + pat́ = karpat́.

19. Some of you have seen a kind of fruit that looks like a lichee. It does not have any thorns on its surface. It is slightly round in shape and reddish green in colour, and its pulp tastes like a lichee. However, it has a very pungent smell. Many people do not like this smell. Its seed is smaller than the seed of a lichee and is not as long. It was introduced into India from China in the hoary past. By adding the suffix nak to the verbal root ci and lengthening the vowel, we get the word ciin, which etymologically means “the place where many selected good items are available”. In Kolkata we call this fruit áṋshphal.

    A Chinese botanist experimented on this áṋshphal and created the lichee fruit. That happened a long time ago. The áṋshphal is also called káiṋcana. But the word is used in feminine gender and its feminine form is káińcaniká.

Kát́haka/Kat́ha

The verbal root kat́h means “stiff” or “to appear as stiff or tough”. Words like kat́ha, kat́haka, kát́haka, etc., are all derived from the verbal root kat́h. The etymological meaning of the word Kat́hopaniśad is an Upanishad which is very tough. Kát́haka Saḿhitá has the same meaning. The word kat́hin also has the same meaning. The same is the case with kat́hora. Kat́hinatá [hardness] is an abstract noun. The word kat́hin also means that type of indigenous date which is all [hard] seed and scarcely any pulp. The Sanskrit word for the raw sugar prepared from the sap of the date palm is called kát́hin guŕ. The abbreviated form of navatákát́hin [a raw-sugar cake] is the word navát, used in the Ráŕh region.

Káńd́a

Kam + ańd́ac = káńd́a. Káńd́a means the habitat of an attractive object. In its extended sense the word means the following:

1. The part of the tree between the roots and the point where the tree branches out for the first time is called guṋŕi in Bengali. In old Bengali guṋŕi of course referred to the trunk, and in addition to that it also used to mean a collection or a cluster. This guṋŕi has become guli and gulo. Remember that the la in gulo and guli is end-la: its pronunciation is not exactly like la but something like lra. In northern Bengal, guṋŕi as a collective form had rather extensive use. For example, the cluster of villages centering round Jalpeshvar Shiva is Jalpaiguri, and the cluster of villages full of myna is called Maynaguri. Similarly, we have Dhupguri, Kamakhyaguri, etc. However, in Sanskrit káńd́a is used only for the trunk of a tree and not for guli or gulo.

2. On the outer part of the tree trunk, we have the bark full of pores, and inside that, soft parts of different kinds and in different layers. The hard part, or asthi, lies inside. What is true about the tree is also true about the fruit. The asthi or hard part of the tree is also called káńd́a, and the hard part of the fruit is called only asthi, the derivative form of which is áṋt́i/ áṋt́hi (asthi> at́t́hi> áṋt́i/áṋt́hi ). The asthi of a tree is called sár [which can also mean “density”] in Bengali. Trees of high quality wood are evaluated on the basis of their internal density (sár), because the greater the density, the more valuable the wood. Furniture made of such wood also lasts long. While buying a palm tree the buyer invariably considers the density of the heartwood.

3. Different trees or different entities belong to different genera. The structure (kát́hámo– in North India, dháṋcá) of a banyan tree is not the same as that of a mango tree. The bamboo and coconut trees have different structures. The structure of indigenous pumpkin [Benincasá cerifera Savi] is again of a different kind. There are thorns in indigenous pumpkin as well as ground pumpkin; and there are thorns also in cactus. But the structure and nature of these thorns are not the same. An ekkágáŕii is a carriage drawn by one horse. A palanquin or coach is also drawn by horses. A phaeton is usually drawn by a pair of horses. Although both are drawn by horses, their arrangement or structure is not the same. The crude identity of an object is determined by its structure. The characteristics of the structure are called káńd́a.

4. Since ancient times, human beings were acquainted with fermented wine. In those days there was no need to brew the wine, as it was created naturally. Sugar or anything containing carbohydrate, if kept static for a long time, becomes fermented. When the juice of palm or date palm comes in contact with daylight, its sweetness begins to diminish and its acidity begins to increase ... it begins to froth. We call it táŕi. Sugar-cane juice, when kept in the sun for a long time, becomes fermented and turns into sirká⁽³⁾ or vinegar. Stale rice when fermented becomes ámáni….. káiṋjii.

   When the juice of a ripe and hardened coconut is kept for a long time in a bell-metal container, it acquires the property of wine. Many of you must have seen honey ferment. A fermented substance contains an intoxicating element. This is why it causes inebriation.

   The somarasa that the Aryans used to drink in ancient times was also fermented wine. Shukracharya (according to another view, Nagarjuna) discovered the process of distilling wine or liquids having the potential of fermentation. Since then, human beings have been in contact with distilled wine. This distilled wine originally or in the beginning was known as káńd́a.

5. In ancient times people used to perform sacrificial rites, with or without reason, at the slightest opportunity. The firewood they used to light the sacrificial fire was called samidh. The wood apple, sal [Shorea robusta] and large fig trees were considered the best firewood for samidh. The fire burning the samidh was called yajiṋágni [sacrificial fire]. Another name for this sacrificial fire was káńd́a.

6. Not all water is drinking water. The water used for drinking is called drinking water, and the water that cannot be used for drinking is called káńd́a. The water from a drain or a pond full of water-wort or a paddy field is not drinking water. So these are not drinking water, these are káńd́a.

7. If part of a book contains the description of one particular episode or one particular expression of any idea, it is called káńd́a. The Rámáyańa has seven káńd́as. All the káńd́as put together constitute the epic Rámáyańa. It means that the káńd́as are interrelated. But if the parts of a book are very closely related, then those parts are not called káńd́a, they are called parvas. In other words, parvas of a book are more intimately connected than káńd́as. That is why the eighteen parts of the Mahábhárata are described not as eighteen káńd́as, but as eighteen parvas. The Mahábhárata composed by Krśńadvaepáyana Vyása has eighteen parvas. The Latin word canto is also derived from the Sanskrit káńd́a. According to Vedic phonetics, káńd́a and khańd́a are cognates. The meanings of the two words, though not exactly identical, are almost the same.

8. Whatever emanates from good intentions, or whatever moves or is moved towards goodness, is called sat. And what remains in opposition is called asat. Yes, the word sat has many meanings. The meaning stated above is one of them. The old Persian word for asat is kháráb. This word kháráb has degenerated into kháráp [“bad”] in Bengali, just as khabr [“news”] has Bengali forms – both khabar and khapar. In any case, the word káńd́a can be used for the word kháráb.

9. Sins can be of different kinds, depending on differences in dimension. To do anything that should not be done is called pápa, and not to do what should be done is called pratyaváya. For example, one should not steal, one should not tell a lie. But if one steals or tells a lie, he or she is committing a pápa. Again, one should educate one’s children and should get one’s daughter married when she comes of age. If one does not educate one’s children or does not get one’s daughter married when she comes of age, one commits pratyaváya. Hence, to transgress a prohibition is pápa and to violate a moral obligation is pratyaváya. However, pápa and pratyaváya in a special sense are together called pátaka. Whatever is amenable to rectification or expiation is generally called pápa or pátaka. A sin whose atonement is extremely serious but which is not of self-perpetuating nature is called atipátaka. A sin which cannot be expiated and which is characterized by its self-perpetuating nature is called mahápátaka. A mahápátakii [“great sinner”] can commit genocide. In order to prevent a person from degenerating into a great sinner, it is necessary to impart good education from childhood. It is a social duty. The people who are entrusted with this task are called samája guru [preceptors] of the society. The teachers in primary schools, high schools, colleges and universities are, in this sense, social preceptors. That is why they are always to be respected.

   However, this mahápátakii is also called káńd́a.

10. If something happens without any prior intimation, it is also called káńd́a.

11. When a cause suddenly turns into its effect, it is also called káńd́a.

12. A traumatic event which causes mental disturbance (evokes shame or fear) is known as “accident”. Another name for “accident” is káńd́a.

13. The bones of humans and animals differ in length and breadth. The bones that are relatively large are called káńd́a.

14. When a bone is joined to another bone, the ends of the bones are called káńd́a.

15. When bones follow such a particular pattern and a bone is not followed by another bone, then that extreme bone is also called káńd́a.

16. Swift animals with whose help we can see káńd́a after káńd́a, that is, scene after scene, are also called káńd́a. In ancient times a horse was an animal that primarily came in contact with humans. So káńd́a also refers to a swift horse.

17. An object that can move from one place to another place in a very short time and wreak havoc is also called káńd́a. An arrow can cover a distance in a very short time and can injure, kill, set ablaze, inject poison and cause other forms of damage. That is why káńd́a also means an arrow.

18. It is said that khosámod [flattery] can melt a mountain into butter. Even a hot-tempered sage like Durvásá can melt when flattered. The word káńd́a is used for this khosámod. The word khosámod, used for “flattery”, has come from the Persian, khusámad. Some people, in order to give khusámad a sophisticated form, use the word tośámod instead. No, there is no such word as tośámod. The scriptures say that a flatterer degenerates at every step – because, prompted by self-interest at every moment and at every step he commits unnatural acts. In former days the kings and the well-to-do people used to maintain salaried flatterers. They were called mosáheb – those who would always try to keep their bosses in good humour by calling them sáheb, sáheb. According to Arabic grammar, the word sáheb prefixed by mu becomes musáheb or mosáheb. In Arabic even today, many new words are formed by adding the prefix mu to other words – nouns or verbs. Examples would include, muállin, muájjin (one who gives áján⁽⁴⁾), mujáhid (one who has taken part in a jehád or crusade), muhájir (one who has been hájir [present] from another country, that is, a refugee), musáfir (one who does safar [journey] or keeps on travelling). This reminds me of a story.

    Once a king needed a flatterer. He duly published an advertisement in the newspaper announcing the available position. He also indicated in the advertisement that the application must be accom-panied by a non-refundable, crossed cheque for Rs. 500. Applications came in the thousands. After a written examination, viva voce began. The king was present [to interview the candidates]. Holding the left armrest of the king’s throne stood his minister, slightly craning his neck toward the king. The candidates began appearing for the interview one by one. The king asked the first candidate: “Can you do the job of a flatterer?”

    The candidate replied, “Of course I can, my Lord.”

    Immediately the king rejected him. The second candidate entered – a smart and clever young man, prattling away and full of gestures and gesticulations. The king said to him: “The responsibility of a sycophant is a very heavy responsibility. Can you do the job?” The candidate replied, “Give me a chance and see, my Lord. Certainly I can.” The candidate was not to the liking of the king (ná pasind⁽⁵⁾) and so the king rejected him as well. Needless to say, he did not get the job.

    The third candidate was highly educated. However, he began to sweat all over, even though it was the cold winter month of Pauś [ninth month of the Bengali calendar, from mid-December to mid-January]. Thus as he appeared before the king, he was constantly mopping the sweat of his brow with a handkerchief. The king asked him: “Are you capable of doing the great job of a sycophant?”

    Instantly radiant with inspiration, the candidate rattled on, “Of course, yes! A hundred times yes! Sir, I give my word ... just give me a chance and see ... just a chance, please.”

    The king rejected this candidate as well. The boy who entered next looked intelligent but did not appear to have “profundity of wisdom”. The king asked him: “Can you do the job of a sycophant?”

    This candidate met the question with a question: “Really, O King, can I do the job of a sycophant?”

    The king said: “No, I think you cannot do it.”

    He agreed: “Yes sir, I have a feeling that I cannot do it.”

    The king then said: “Yes, but you can have a try.”

    He concurred: “Yes, sir, I can have a try.”

    The king cast a significant sidelong glance at the minister, upon which the minister said: “O, great King, my Lord, this person is eminently qualified. Please appoint him. In the present age he is a symbol of universal humanism ... he rightly deserves to receive the garland of victory!”

    The king told the candidate: “Do you understand, mister? You are appointed to the post with effect from today.”

    So, you can understand that káńd́a means this flattering. In Sanskrit, however, a mosáheb is called a viduśaka. In a limited sense of mosáheb, the word bháńd́a was also prevalent in Sanskrit. It is from this word that the Bengali word bháṋŕá has come (Gopal Bháṋŕá, for example). But bháṋŕá also means a clown. When we say, ár bháṋŕámi’ karte habe ná, [“enough of buffoonery there!”], the word bháṋŕá is not derived from bháńd́a but from bhańd́a, meaning “pretentious or deceptive”. Thus in the present case, the word bháṋŕámi has been used in the sense of bhańd́ámi or pretension.

19. For every kind of task, there is a most suitable or appropriate time [for its implementation]. If the field for áman variety of paddy is prepared by tilling the land in the month of Áśáŕha [rainy season], then the seedlings can be sown as soon as the field is filled with water that is halfway to knee-deep. If the time is lost in negligence and then if it does not rain for a few days, the water level will fall. At that low water level, the seedlings (cárá⁽⁶⁾) will survive but new seedlings cannot be sown. However, if the new seedlings are sown in time, then the saplings will not be affected even in heavy rainfall, because the saplings will grow along with the rising water level. The saplings will not be affected until the tops of the saplings are submerged. But if the seedlings are not sown at the proper time, they cannot be sown in high water, because it is not possible to sow the seedlings with their tops under water.

    Again, look at the harvesting. The paddies once reaped cannot be left unused in the field or in a [roofless] granary for an extended period. It is essential to immediately thresh and flail the reaped paddies and store in a [roofed] granary, because if the reaped paddy corns come in contact with too much rain water, they will begin to germinate. As a result, let alone ciṋŕe-muŕi, that is, paddy made into flattened rice, puffed rice or sunned rice, it will not be good even for boiled rice. If husked in a seesaw-like husker, the quantity of huskings and particles will be too much and [because the final product will include many broken particles] the taste of the boiled rice will also suffer.

    So it is seen that there is an appropriate time for everything. Just before an examination the mnemonic faculty becomes stronger on account of the pressure placed on it. Even a little intensive study during this period yields good results. But what would be the use of wasting that time in playing tipcat⁽⁷⁾ and concentrating on studies only after the examination? That is why one should do everything at the proper time. This proper time for a particular kind of job is also called káńd́a.

20. If a person tries to get his work done, spending whatever time he may have available [to organize that work] in coarse behaviour to another person, he may perhaps get the work done, but it is more likely that he will not get it done. If, however, he tries to get the work done by spending even a fraction of the same time in sweet words and good behaviour, time will be saved and there will be a greater chance of success. So sweet words or good behaviour, which are certainly marks of higher culture, are also steps to success. The word káńd́a is also used for such people who use sweet words in their social life. The word káńd́a is also used as a noun for that particular work.

21. There is a proper time and season for doing any task. We will not sow the seeds of wheat in the clay soil in the month of heavy rains of Áśáŕha, because that is not the season for seeds of wheat, nor will the soil be suitable. The soil for sowing wheat seeds is loamy soil, and the right season is hemanta [the season between autumn and winter] and the first seven days of Pauś [from mid-December to mid-January] in winter. You cannot grow ginger in the month of Bhádra [from mid-August to mid-September]. If sown, the ginger will rot in a few days. The best time for sowing ginger is the month of Phálgun [the period from mid-February to mid-March] and the first week of Caetra [from mid-March to mid-April] particularly when the moon enters the Ádrá star [Orionis Betelgeuse]. So you realize that for every task there is a special season and a definite time. A boy who plays in the morning without studying cannot do well in the examination. A boy who studies in the afternoon, which is actually the time for playing, cannot have good health. So even during the day there are different hours for different kinds of activities. This particular season, or particular prahara [a measure of time equal to three hours], or particular time earmarked for a particular job, is also called káńd́a.

22. Before tidying up something one generally allows it to lie scattered on the ground. Then, one arranges it later according to one’s convenience. Items lying scattered in a heap are called stúpa. The word káńd́a is also used for such a stúpa. Anything holding its head high is called stúpa. The word káńd́a can be used for this kind of entity also.

    In the medieval period, people used to construct a special kind of house to display certain historical objects for the masses. In the Buddhist period, a large number of such stúpas were constructed. Sáṋci Stúpa (Madhya Pradesh), Caetyastúpa (Chattagram, Bangladesh), Sáranáth Stúpa (Varanasi), Dantapuri Bihar Stúpa (Dantan, Midnapore District of West Bengal), Paiṋcastúpii (Páṋcthubii, Murshidabad District of West Bengal) are examples. The word káńd́a will be used for this kind of stúpa.

23. The act of giving advice to someone in secret is also called káńd́a. Good advice cannot be given to anyone in public. This act of giving advice to someone in private is also called káńd́a.

    The act of giving advice to someone in private reminds me of a small anecdote.

    So while eating puffed rice and potato cutlets, please listen to this story.

    There was a Brahman and his Brahman wife. The wife was an uncontrollable shrew. All the time she used to torture the Brahman. She would always virulently oppose whatever the Brahman said and would do exactly the opposite. Once the Brahman told his wife, “Look, next week we will have the annual death ceremony of my father. We must perform the ceremony. Please make all the necessary arrangements.”

    The wife thundered: “What? Whose death anniversary? I won’t allow any death ceremony of a ghost!”

    “Death anniversary not of a ghost but of my father.”

    The wife asked, “Is your father still alive and kicking? If not a ghost, what is he? I won’t allow any ceremonial obsequies to be performed in this house ... never ... never ... never. This is my final word, remember!”

    The Brahman realized he was at an impasse. He then took the name of God and, turning away from his wife, started running until finally he reached the back door of his guru. His guru eyed him closely and asked, “What’s the matter? What has brought you rushing to me at such an unusual hour?”

    The Brahman narrated at length the entire episode. His guru then said, “Yes, it is an issue that deserves serious consideration.” Then he muttered a secret “mantra” into the Brahman’s ear. The Brahman returned home, all the way silently repeating the “mantra”. On his return the Brahman saw that his wife was in a relaxed mood, complacently stretching her legs and having a sumptuous lunch. With plenty of rice on her plate along with some twenty-seven items of food in small containers encircling the rice, she was chewing drumsticks (shojne⁽⁸⁾) with deep relish. In her left hand she held tightly a huge water pot made of bell- metal.

    The Brahman could brook no delay. In order to see the effect of the mantra, he came up to his wife, and said. “Look here, my wife, I’ve decided to abide by your decision. This year I won’t perform the annual death ceremony of my father.”

    The wife flared up: “What? Who has the guts to say that I won’t perform the death ceremony of my father-in-law? The ceremony must be performed!” The Brahman said, “Well, if we have to do it at all, then we’ll engage a cheap priest on the bank of the Ganges and do it casually with minimum fanfare.”

    The wife shouted back, “How dare you say that! Doesn’t my house have any prestige? We must call in a good priest and observe the obsequies in a befitting manner.”

    The Brahman said, “Well let that be. But this year I have serious financial problems. 1 haven’t got much from my yajmáns [the people on whose behalf I worship]. The potato crop has failed. So, I will somehow manage to entertain just five Brahmans or just give away some food offerings (bhujji⁽⁹⁾).”

    The wife scolded: “Fie, fie! What a matter of shame! We must invite at least five hundred people. If there’s a shortage of funds, I’ll sell this heavy necklace weighing more than ten tolás [12 grams approx.] of gold to meet the expenses.”

    Everything was going off quite well. The Brahman was very happy. The advice of his guru was yielding a marvellous result! Meanwhile, in the ecstasy of his joy, he forgot the instructions. The secret advice given by the guru passed into oblivion. After the obsequies were over, the Brahman told his wife: “Look here, my wife, collect all these sunned rice, sesame seeds and other ingredients used for the obsequies and sacrifice everything to the Ganges”.

    His wife reacted sharply: “What audacity! How could you think I would sacrifice all these useless things in the Ganges? I’ll throw them into a drain. I must ... I must … must!”

    The Brahman was stunned. The secrecy of the advice was possibly still there; but the value of the advice and the sense of its propriety were passing into oblivion. Hence this predicament.

    So, now you understand for what reason the secret advice the guru gave to the Brahman can also be termed as káńd́a.

Ká + tr + ghaiṋ = kátara, which means to walk in an ugly manner or to cross a road in an awkward fashion. These are the etymological meanings. In its common usage, kátara means: 1) a simple man, 2) an idiot (a foolish fellow), 3) a coward, 4) an absolute dullard. 5) In the society of fish, the kátlá fish [Catla buchamani] is despised because it has a large head devoid of any intelligence. The word kátara refers to this kátlá fish.

In North India the word kátara has given birth to the word káyara. In North India the word káyaratá is used to mean kátaratá. But it is better not to say káyaratá, because tá is a Sanskrit suffix, while káyar is a word derived from Sanskrit. There is no restriction in adding a Sanskrit suffix to a derived word; but it is better not to do it.

Kátala

According to the rule ra-layorabhedah [“there is no difference between ra and la”] you can use the word kátala in place of kátara. Kátala matsya > kátala macha > kátlá mách.

Kadamba + rá + d́a = kádambara. Etymologically it means anything related to kadamba. In its common usage, it means: 1) the grove of kadamba, 2) wine made from the honey of the kadamba flower [Anthocephalus cadamba], 3) a type of sweet called rábŕi made out of the film formed when milk is heated on a slow fire, 4) perfume made of the distilled scent of kadamba flowers.

In feminine gender kádambarii means: 1) in the mythological sense, the goddess of learning or Sarasvatii, 2) classical music, 3) the sweet chirping of birds, 4) the song of a bird, 5) the female cuckoo (kokilá). In North India the female cuckoo is called koylii, but we should remember that a female cuckoo does not sing. 6) The female of any bird species; 7) a strong wine containing more than 50% alcohol, which on drinking gives a burning sensation in the chest and the stomach. 8) Another meaning of kádambarii is aesthetically sound literary work. You can use the word kádambarii when referring to a good novel or fiction.

Kádambinii

The word is feminine, and etymologically it is also related to kadamba. The common meanings of kádambinii are: 1) A cluster formed by clouds coming from different corners of the sky. 2) The word kádambarii is also used for the mythological goddess Sarasvatii on special occasions. 3) Kádambarii means fermented wine. 4) Condiment made from fully-bloomed kadam [kadamba] flowers.

Kánana

Kan/kán + lyut́ with elongated vowel gives us the word kánana. Etymologically it means something that shines or that is worth seeing. The first na can be either dental na or retroflex ńa but the end na must be dental na. The extended meanings of the word are:

1. a planned forest

2. a planned park. If a sanctuary for birds and animals is not properly planned, it should better be called a nirbhayárańya [a forest where birds and beasts can move without fear] rather than nirbhaykánan.

Kántára

Kán + tr + ghaiṋ = kántára. Etymologically kántára means “not to allow anyone to cross”. In its common usage, kántára means: 1) a dense forest difficult to pass through, 2) a place where there is no regular road, 3) a path that is difficult to traverse, 4) a huge pit, 5) rough or undulating land, 6) terrain that is full of thorns, 7) a kind of juicy red-coloured sugar cane (Mumbai sugar cane), 8) red-coloured lotus, 9) slightly reddish bamboo, 10) ochre of any colour (kántárak means only red ochre), 1l) a kind of distilled wine made from sugar-cane juice. 12) A disease that causes prickly pain is called kántára. 13) Kántára also means a kind of leprosy which has a crimson glow. According to Ayurveda, this disease is almost incurable.

Kántárii

The feminine of kántár is kántárii. 1) It means sugar cane of any colour or species. It is from this word kántárii that we obtain the word ketárii in the Auṋgiká, Magahi and Nágpurii languages. The word kántáriiká means a wine with a high percentage of alcohol. 2) Another meaning of the word kántárii is sháṋkhálu or keshu [an edible white tuber shaped like a conch-shell and sometimes called “yam bean”]. At some places it is also called mishri kanda [the tuber as sweet as rock candy]. 3) Another meaning of the word kántárii is the wine brewed out of the juice of this edible fruit.

Kapat́a + t́hak (according to another view, t́haiṋ) = kápat́ika. In its common usage, kápat́ika means: l) a t́hag (one who cheats people), 2) a counterfeiter (one who is engaged in counterfeiting currency notes, medicines, etc.), 3) an obstinate person, 4) one whose appearance is different from reality (a hypocrite). In Sanskrit the word páśańd́a is used for “hypocrite”. 5) An immoral or dishonest person, 6) a person of evil nature, 7) a habitual flatterer, 8) a parasite. The word kápat́ika is used in neuter gender to yield the above meaning. 9) An eminent scholar (masculine gender), 10) a bright research scholar.

Footnotes

(1) The realm of Maydánav was known as “Mayaráśt́ra”. Meerut is now a district head quarters of western Uttar Pradesh. –Trans.

(2) Jatu > jao: Jatugrám > Jaugrám. Jaugrám is a prosperous village of Jamalpur Police Station in Burdwan District. The story goes that in this very village Jaugrám the incident of the burning of the jatugrha of the Pandavas took place.

(3) In the western Ráŕh area of Manbhum District (presently Purulia District) Sirkávád is a place famous for production of raw sugar. The very name indicates that sirká, or vinegar, used to be produced and is still being produced there.

(4) Call to prayer. –Trans.

(5) The word is of Persian origin. Hence instead of saying ná pachanda, it is better to say ná pasind. But ná pachanda can also be used as its Bengali form.

(6) The seedlings of rice are in some places called biija, biihan and elsewhere biican. In the northern part of western Ráŕh it is called áphoŕa (ásphot́a) and in the southern part it is called talá.

(7) A village game played with a short wooden stick and a piece of wood sharpened and tapered at both ends. –Trans.

(8) Shobháińjana > shoháińjana > shoińjana > shojiná > shojne.

(9) Bhojja [that is, edibles like rice, vegetables etc.]

Chapter 2	Shabda Cayaniká Part 4

Kámbal

Kambal + ań = kámbal. Etymologically kámbal means “one who is wrapped in a kambal [blanket]”. In common usage, it means one who is oversensitive to cold. You must have come across some people who use a sweater or a muffler at the slightest cold weather; they will stop taking bath if they have a little cough. Such people are called shiitkáture or “oversensitive to cold”. In chaste Bengali you can use the word kámbal for such people.

Kárańa

The word kárańa is obtained by adding the suffix lyut́ to the verbal root kr in the causative. According to some scholars, when [the vowel a in] the word karańa is elongated, it becomes kárańa and assumes a special distinction. Then it is neither causative nor is it ań-suffixed. Thus etymologically kárańa means “the root entity transformed into a sequence of cause and effect that has now become an effect in the present moment”. In common usage, it means many of the theories discussed below:

1. Kárańa means the causal matrix.

   In the ancient world, when human beings reached the first stage in forming a society, it was a matriarchal society. In addition to maternal lineage that was already in force, there were regulations regarding maternal heritage. In other words, the family line was determined by looking at the mothers of a family. When one asked a person’s name, one asked the name of the mother, the name of the mother’s mother, then her mother and so on. This custom was observed in the case of both men and women. After marriage the husband assumed the surname of his wife’s family line. This means that a man marrying a woman living on the hills, that is, in a particular gotra [lineage] had to take on the title of that gotra in all respects. (The practice is prevalent in some communities even today.) The law of inheritance was also matrilineal; that is, the children used to inherit the property of the mother. This system was prevailing in the world for a long time. The only flaw was that in this system, though the mother was identified, the father was not, and unless the father is also identified, it is not possible to determine the qualitative excellence of a person.

   Both the patriarchal system and the matriarchal system have their merits and demerits. However, because man is physically stronger, ultimately the patriarchal system came to prevail. Though the patriarchal system had many defects, which I have referred to earlier, it had two advantages. First, in the matriarchal social system the woman had to shoulder all kinds of responsibilities, as a result of which her life became miserable. In the patriarchal system the man, that is, the father, was obliged to share a large part of the responsibility. Secondly, the institution of marriage came into force to help divide the responsibilities and identify the father. Even after the introduction of the patriarchal social system, many men did not easily accept the institution of marriage, because they wanted the rights of domination but without accepting their responsibilities. Lord Shiva was the first to shoulder this great responsibility, and compelled men to take part in the marriage system.

   In India, which is otherwise a predominantly patriarchal society, among the Bengalees there are still remnants of the matriarchal social system. Here a nephew [sister’s son] inherits the property of a childless maternal uncle. If the maternal uncle has no children, the nephew becomes entitled to perform the last rites of his maternal uncle after observing three days’, impurity rites. On the death of her father, a daughter has to observe similar impurity rites and has to organize a shráddha ceremony [obsequies] on the fourth day of the death of the father.

   In Kerala the matriarchal social system is a little more dominant than in Bengal. There the nephew [sister’s son], instead of using the surname of the father, uses the surname of his maternal uncle, that is, the maiden name of his mother. He inherits the property of his maternal uncle and assumes the name of his mother even if born of an inter-caste marriage. A hundred percent matrilineal social system is prevalent today only in a certain community in Meghalaya. When the mother-dominated social system prevailed, a man used to assume the same gotra [community name] of the mother, which was the same as that of the mother’s mother, and so on; and the mother was considered as the leader of that community. And the chief of all chiefs, the original chief or the primal mother was considered as the causal matrix. Kárańa means this primordial cause or causal matrix.

2. In Kańádiiya Nyáya it is said, Kárańábhávát karyábhávah – “If there is no cause there is no effect.” The movement and nature of everything in the world – big or small, great or insignificant – is governed by this cause-and-effect theory. When we look at a tree, we realize that there must have been a seed behind its growth. Again, when we look at a seed, we realize that it must have come from a tree. If we trace this backwards – from tree to seed, from seed to tree, and so on – then we will arrive at a stage where the Mind becomes the effect, but as its cause we find only the absence of Mind. In other words, what was the cause at one stage was the effect at the previous stage, and this effect had a cause at a still earlier stage. If we proceed backwards along the line of cause and effect – if we move on from the tree to the seed and so on – finally we will get the tree as the effect. While looking for the seed [i.e., its own seed], the mind that is looking for its effective cause arrives at a stage where the mind does not exist. How can the mind understand or experience something at a stage wherein the mind itself is not functioning? To attempt to think about something or argue about something at a stage wherein the mind does not exist is known as anavasthá dośa, that is, the fallacy of infinite regression.

   While tracing back the cause-effect relationship, the stage immediately preceding the stage where the non-existential fallacy arises, that final stage, is called kárańa or “primal cause” … the causal factor.

   The name of the great sage Kańáda eventually featured in our discussion of the cause-effect theory. This Kańáda was the first inventor of the atomic theory. Many people knew about this cause-and-effect theory in a casual, perfunctory manner both before and after Kańáda, but he was the first person to establish it as a systematic and fundamental theory. He was the first to say, Kárańábhávát karyábhávah. These two parts of Kańádiiya Nyáya (the atomic theory and the cause-effect theory) later helped greatly in unravelling many knotty problems of the world. It is worth mentioning in this connection that Indian theistic theory developed into three distinct, original branches of philosophy: two sáḿkhyas, two miimáḿsás and two nyáyas. The oldest of these is Kapila’s Niriishvara Sáḿkhya. The great sage Kapila, the proponent of this philosophy, hailed from a village named Patijhalda in the Ráŕh region. He attained divine grace on the hill of Kapilá near Jhalda and established his mat́h [monastery] at Gauṋgáságar … an oceanic island. The second system of Sáḿkhya is known as Seshvar Sáḿkhya, introduced by the great sage, Pataiṋjali. He was born in the village Patun situated near Burdwan of the Ráŕh region. The third theory was known as Purva Miimáḿsá Darshana. The great sage Jaimini, the exponent of this philosophy, was a man of southern India. There was a time when his Purva Miimáḿsá was widely accepted by the ordinary people of India. Kavikauṋkana Mukundaráma writes:

   Pariccheda náhi sandhyá-divasa-rajanii,
   Smaraye sakala loka Jaemini Jaemini.

   –Kavikauṋkana Mukundaráma

   [Evening, day and night, people ever remember the name of Jaemini.]

   The second miimáḿsá darshana is the Uttara Miimáḿsá of the great sage Bádaráyańa Vyása. He also belonged to southern India. The great sage Gaotama, who founded the Gaotamiiya Nyáya darshana, belonged to a place near Kamtaul of Mithila ... and the exponent of the second nyáya darshana or vaesheśika darshana was the great sage Kańáda (Kańádiiya Nyáya). He was born in Puruśpur (Peshavar) of the then Gandhára [the border region of Afghanistan and northwest India]. Although Gaotamiiya Nyáya had originated and developed in the beginning in Mithila, it was navyanyáya [new logic theory] based on it that brought glory to Navadvip [Nadia District, West Bengal]. Raghunath Bhattacharya (Raghunath Shiromańi), one of its interpreters, was born in the district of Burdwan near Navadvip. The famous nyáya of Raghunath, navyányaya and Raghunath – all three became almost identical.

   Although there are thousands of varying opinions among scholars regarding the six forms of atheistic philosophy, these can be broadly divided into three categories [the first of which is Jaena Darshana (Jain Philosophy)].

   The first Jaena Darshana is Digambar Jaena Darshana. Although Jain philosophy believed in spirituality, it is called atheistic philosophy because it does not state clearly its views regarding átman and Paramátman due to its opposition to the Vedas. According to the old school of thought, a philosophy that does not believe in any of the three – Vedas, the átmá [soul, spirit] or Paramátmá [Supreme Subjectivity]–is called atheistic. Belief in any of these three absolves one of the charge of atheism.

   The second Jaena Darshana is Shvetámbara Jaena Darshana.

   There are two sub-branches of Buddhism based on the Buddhist Abhidhammapit́aka [main Buddhist scripture] branches – [the first] Theráváda, or Sthavirváda (Hiinayánii Darshana – the southern school of Buddhistic philosophy) and the second, Maháyánii, the northern school of Buddhistic philosophy). The latter has four sub-branches: 1) Saotántrika, 2) Vaebháśika, 3) Mádhyamika and 4) Baoddha Yogácára – Kśańena jáyate kśańena mriyate, tayaeryogaphalam [“Born in a moment, dead in a moment: life is the sum of these”].

   One sub-branch of the third branch of atheistic philosophy is the dehaparińámváda [worldview based on bodily transformations] of Cárváka.

   Yávajjiivet sukhaḿ jiivet nástimrtyuragocarah;
   Bhasmiibhutasya dehasya punarágamanaḿ kutah?

   [One should live happily as long as one lives, since death is inevitable.
   Where is the return of the body once it is turned into ashes?]

   And the second sub-branch is Cárváka’s dehátmaváda [philosophy of the body or materialistic hedonism].

   Caturbhyo khalu bhutebhyo caitanyamupjáyate;
   Kińvádibhyah sametebhyah dravyebhyo madashaktivat.

   [That is to say, as the result of the combination of four elements, the fifth element, consciousness,comes into being; just like wine prepared by the combination of ingredients such as leaven, grapes, etc.]

   According to many, there was no actual person named Maharśi Cárváka. It was Devaguru Brhaspati who introduced atheistic philosophy only to refute it in order to strengthen theistic philosophy. While propagating this theory of atheism, Brhaspati introduced himself as “Cáruvák” [“One Who Says Sweet Words”]. This Cáruváka became Cárváka, the name by which he was later known.

3. The state of an entity immediately preceding our perception of that entity at a particular point in time is known as the cause of the present state [later state]. The state immediately preceding the flow of the river, in the expansive stretch from Haridwar to Gauṋgáságar⁽¹⁾ that we find in Gauṋgottarii, is a spring which descends from the Himalayas onto the plains. So we shall describe Gauṋgottarii as the cause of Gauṋgá [Ganges]. Again, in the mountainous regions many small rivers, that is, kśudrakáyá nadii⁽²⁾ such as Alakánandá, Mandákinii, Bhágiirathii, etc., unite, as a result of which we get the spring of Gauṋgottarii.

   So the hill springs and those small rivers are the cause of Gauṋgottarii. According to Puranic legend, the sacred water washing the feet of Viśńu descended to earth due to the penance of Bhagiiratha. Everyone was afraid that the tremendous pressure of such a huge volume of water might split the heart of the earth. However, Lord Shiva caught that water in His matted hair and then gradually released it, letting it flow downwards. According to the Puranic account, this water then divided into four parts:

   Svargete Alakándá, martte Bhágiirathii,
   Pitrloke Mandákinii, pátále Bhogavatii.

   [Alakánandá in heaven, Bhágiirathii on earth,
   Mandákinii in the ancestral world and Bhogavatii in hell.]

4. Whenever we find the expression of an action, we must realize that behind that action there is some psychic momentum – heavy or light sympathetic vibration (saḿvedanátmaka vyáhrti). There is a ripe mango on a tree. You see the mango. Your mind perceives the act of your seeing the mango. On seeing ripe mango you desire to eat it – there is thus a development of sympathetic vibration in your mind. You then take off your shirt, tuck your dhoti up above the knees, quickly climb up the tree … pluck the mango … eat it … and throw away the seed. Behind all these actions of yours – wearing the dhoti in the style of a wrestler, taking off the shirt, climbing the tree, eating the mango, throwing away the seed of the mango (I do not know whether you washed your hands and mouth afterwards) – lies a psychic impulse. Again, everything that is happening in this vast universe – it rains … the river flows … the cloud bursts … the earth is inundated … the Plutonic earthquake demolishes mountains and creates oceans … a tall mountain appears out of the ocean and rears its head erect – is a function of the [Cosmic] Mind that lies behind it. What is psychic vibration or Vyáhriti in the case of a unit being is, in the case of the Cosmic Being, Mahávyáhriti or Cosmic vibration or desire. This Vyáhriti in the case of the unit being, and Mahávyáhriti in the case of Cosmic vibration are also described as kárańa.

5. Kárańa means the real cause. From a philosophical point of view, Parama Brahma [Supreme Brahma] is not regarded as the real cause [of creation], because It comprises in Itself both the Cognitive Faculty and the Operative Faculty. In the strictest sense, the Cognitive Faculty cannot be called [simply] the nimitta kárańa [instrumental cause], and the Operative Faculty cannot be called [simply] the upádána kárańa [material cause]. The fact is that the Cognitive Faculty is pradhána [dominant] as an instrumental entity and apradhána [non-dominant] as a material entity, while the Operative Faculty is pradhána as material cause and apradhána as instrumental cause. The Operative Faculty being pradhána as material, all kinds of manifest and perceived realities are Her upádatta [materialized entities] and that is the reason why She is termed as the most important prákrta [natural] force, that is, Prakrti or Pradhána.⁽³⁾

   Nirguńa Brahma [non-qualified Supreme Entity] expresses the complete balance of both faculties in Itself. Therefore neither any instrumentality nor any material causality is manifest in It. The first stage of Cosmic expression, when theoretically the manifestation of Nirguńa Brahma is distinctly split into instrumental and material, is known as Saguńa Tattva [Manifest Reality]. Tvameko dvitvamápannah shivashaktivibhágashah [“You are one. You have split yourself into two: Shiva and Shakti”]. Thus another name of what is Pradhána as instrument is Shiva, and what is Pradhána as material is known as Shakti or Prakrti or Máyá. This Shiva-tattva is an original or root tattva [factor] and Shakti-tattva is also an original factor.

   Paramá Prakrti [Supreme Operative Principle] is endowed with three guńas [binding principles] – [the guńas of] existential experience, existential functions, and manifest or unmanifest expressions of actions. The relation between the triguńabháva [three guńas before manifestation] and the three guńas when associated with their manifestation is inextricable. So, sattvarajastamah [sentient, mutative and static] – these three guńas also deserve recognition as múla tattvas [original realities]. The balanced triangle of three guńas of Nirguńa Tattva, which is known as guńatrikońa, lies dormant. But when balance is lost, the resulting expression, in embryonic form, emerges from one of the vertices of the triangle. It is dominated by the sentient principle, and its acoustic root is sa.

   The primal shakti contained in the acoustic root sa [the Operative Principle at the first stage of creation], which is described using various names such as Kaośikii Shakti or Mahákaośikii or Mahásarasvatii, is also a múla tattva [original reality]. The force at a later stage, which becomes more and more manifest, or becomes eloquent with explicit cadence, is known as Bhaeravii Shaktii or Kaoverii Shakti. It is also an original reality. Again, when Cosmic idea (bháva) turns into action, where the oneness of the singular Supreme Entity is transformed into many, it is known as Bhavánii Shakti. In Buddhist philosophy it is called Káliká Shakti or Mahámáriici. This Mahámáriici is also an original reality. In other words, Shiva and Shakti, sattva, rajah, tamah, along with Kaośikii, Kaoverii and Mahámáriici, are also known as original realities. In different stages and circumstances they acquire varying unique characteristics.

   Kaośikii sá ástitvikii, Kaoverii sá dattákrtih;
   Mahámáriicih sá vastusamprktih bhávasaḿyuktih vá.

   [Kaośikii is the existential form, Kaoverii is the manifest or assumed form, and Mahámáriici is the objectivated form and ideational link.]

6. A human being carries out actions with every sensory and motor organ. We use the suffix lyut́ for these actions. For example, what we do with the sensory organ of the eyes is the act of seeing or darshana (darshanaḿ); what we do with our ears is shravańa (shravańaḿ.) Similarly, what we do with motor organs like vocal cord (vákyantra) is vacana (vacanaḿ); what we do with the hands is shilpana (shilpanaḿ); what we do with the legs is carańa (carańaḿ). Walking, running, jumping are all functions of the legs. Similarly the work of the potter with his potter’s wheel, the work of the goldsmith with a small hammer, the work of the blacksmith with a big hammer – are all included in the shilpana [any craft done with the hands]. If a person sings well, we cannot call that person a kant́hashilpii [craftsman of voice], because shilpana means manual work specifically done with the hands, not work using the voice. If someone plays an instrument skilfully with the hands, we can call it shilpana-kriyá. Therefore we can describe a sitar player as a sitar-shilpii.

   But even this shilpana-kriyá [manual craft] – is it of a uniform nature and character? Can the dexterity of a highly skilled weaver enable him to make an ornament of gold? Alternately, can the fine dexterity of a highly skilled goldsmith be of any use in the craft of pottery? Different kinds of skill originate from one generic mental faculty, but their manifestations are different and self-evident. This self-creating, characteristic generic skill may be regarded as the cause of many varied, specific skills, which preserve their diversities and specialties. The word kárańa is also used to suggest this in the world of action.

7. In a case where someone acts not out of instinct, but prompted by genuine need – for example, when one is hungry one avidly eats whatever is at hand – behind this action lies natural instinct. Again, when one is not at all hungry, then one would not like to eat even the most palatable or delicious food; in fact, one cannot eat, even if one tries. Here, the natural instinct that acts as an inspiration to eat is also called kárańa.

   When a natural instinct is carried into effect or translated into action, not directly, but indirectly through some medium, then that medium is also called kárańa.

8. There are various kinds of musical instruments. However, these are mainly of two types. Some are stringed instruments and others are without strings. Sitar, esráj, viińá and violin, for example, are stringed instruments; the percussion instruments such as tablá, mrdauṋga [percussion instrument shaped almost like a tom-tom], dhol [tom-tom], dhák [big drum], káṋsar [a dish of bell-metal, a cymbal], khaiṋjani [a pair of bell metals–sound is produced by rhythmically striking them together], etc., are without strings. The stringed instruments are also known as kárańayantra. Of the various instruments invented in India, viińá or viiń is the oldest. This viiń developed naturally from a [primitive] stringed instrument called ektárá.

9. A person can sing anything in a pedestrian style according to his or her sweet will. This kind of singing may or may not have a prescribed form. However, when one has to sing according to the well-defined procedures and rules of musical science, then that kind of singing is called shástriiya saḿgiita or dhrupadi saḿgiita, that is, classical music. This shástriiya saḿgiita or dhrupadii saḿgiita is also known as kárańasaḿgiita or kárańagiiti.

10. When, attracted by the rhythmic flow [of the guńas], the balanced triangle of forces begins to lose its equilibrium, then the creative ideation begins to emanate. This creative ideation certainly remains in potential form in the balanced triangle of guńas. The Cognitive Entity at that time still carries on the cognition of its anavasthá [state of non-existence of the mind] and not of the absence of guńas. In the cognition of the state of perfect equilibrium of guńas, it remains as the Cognitive Being. When it becomes manifest and expresses itself through rhythmic projection as an ideational entity, then we can call it the first emanation of the creative purpose (saḿkalpa). This marks the state of Kaośikii Shakti. And the cognition of this is the real creative shakti. In the language of the mythological Puranas, the creative entity is called Brahmá. This Brahmá is another meaning of kárańa.

    This creative shakti is also called sarjaniidevatá, because devatá⁽⁴⁾ means “divine idea” (devatver bháva).

    While explaining the word deva the great sage Yájiṋavalkya said:

    Dyotate kriid́ate yasmádudyate dyotate divi;
    Tasmaddeva iti proktah stúyate sarvadevataeh.

    [The vibrational manifestations emanating from the Supreme Nucleus are known as devatás, and these devatás address that Supreme Nucleus as Deva. He with His powers vibrates the entire universe, makes the entire universe dance; and He by dint of His occult and supra-occult powers brings everything back onto His lap.]

    So you understand that kárańa also signifies this sarjaniidevatá. All of you know very well that by adding the suffix lyut́ to the verbal root srj, we get sarjana [creative] and not srjana. No one can have srjanii-pratibhá; one can only have sarjanii-pratibhá [creative talents].We use sarjana in utsarjana, visarjana, etc., but when we have to use the word without a prefix, we say by mistake srjana, srjanii. From now on, do not use the word srjana, understand?

11. When, in the process of fragmenting an object, we come to the smallest particle that still retains all the elementary properties of the object, it is called ańu or “molecule”. After further splitting, this particle loses the original properties of the object; we call this new particle paramáńu or “atom”. Cittáńu [“ectoplasm”], abhicittáńu [“endoplasm”] have similar characteristics. Tryasareńu [mote or atom of dust visible in a sun-beam] is another example. Maharśi Kańáda has not explained this subject in detail, nor has Dalton. Possibly they have left this task for their successors. In any case, the smallest particle containing all original properties, together with all matter related to that smallest particle, is also called kárańa. Statements related to the rudimental condition of an object are also called kárańa. For example, the smallest particle of common salt (NaCl) is an ańu of [sodium] chloride. It contains all the properties of [sodium] chloride – salty in taste – but if you split it further, then sodium and chlorine will be separated and each will have its own distnctive properties. But then, we shall not get the properties of salt in the separate elements. We shall call this particle of [sodium] chloride kárańa. Related statements will also be called kárańa, but if we want to say something about the condition of its further fragmented stage [where it is separated into its constituent elements], we cannot use the word kárańa; we will use the word kárańáyudha. If independently [of discussing sodium choride] we discuss the [sodium] element or the chlorine element, then the smallest unit wherein we get the properties of [sodium] or chlorine, we shall call kárańa. But in a further fragmented stage wherein such an element loses the property of [sodium] [or] chlorine, we shall call that state kárańáyudha [causal component].

12. Another meaning of the word kárańa is “potentiality of expression” or “emanation” – manifestation of the latent. In a banyan seed, which is no bigger than a poppy seed, the huge banyan tree lies in potential form. So we shall call that tiny banyan seed the cause or kárańa of the huge banyan tree.

13. There was a time when, due to the absence of proper atmosphere and proper insight, human beings used to drink for momentary pleasure. They did not realize that it does not do any good to the bodily functions; rather it does serious harm to the body and damages it severely. Everything has bright and dark sides. On special occasions and in the case of certain patients, it may be necessary to administer wine as medicine or as an ingredient of a medicine, but there is no need for it in daily life. Since primitive times, human beings have been tirelessly trying to improve their intelligence and intuition. Wine and other intoxicants ruin one’s intelligence. Therefore, it is contrary to the natural progress of human beings. For this reason, wine must be forsaken.

    Even then, let me repeat what I have already said above: Since ancient times, human beings have been addicted to wine, or to put it correctly, wine caught hold of human beings. If someone takes wine due to addiction, it shows their weakness, but it does not affect their simplicity. But if someone takes wine in the name of religion, it shows, in addition to weakness, one’s perversity. According to the Puranic Tantra and according to Buddhist Tantra, Kálikáshakti holds in one of her hands a chalice of nectar… it contains the Kárańa-Biija [the Seed of Creation] of the world. Even the Bhadrakálii of the Atharvaveda has been somehow associated with this chalice of nectar. This is a philosophical postulate. It may have a relationship with wine or it may not. The contention of the philosophical postulate is that at the expected time of the pralaya [dissolution] of the universe, Bhadrakálii preserves the seed or quintessence of the world in the chalice of nectar. But when the addicts drink wine and call it kárańavári or seed water – let them think for themselves how far that is desirable. In any case, one meaning of kárańa is wine used for religious purposes.

14. Another meaning of the word kárańa is the embryo nurtured in the mother’s womb. Every organic being remains in embryonic form at the primary stage. This embryo is regarded as the cause or kárańa of its existence.

15. The central idea of a thesis or proposition is also called kárańa. Suppose I write a story depicting the picture of a dishonest man who, due to regularly keeping the company of good persons, prospers in every respect and finally becomes a better person; and of a good person surrounded by bad company, who gradually degenerates into a detestable beast. The story may be very long, but the keynote or the main point is:

    Satsauṋgena bhavenmuktirasatsauṋgeśu bandhanam;
    Asatsauṋgamudrańaḿ yá sá mudrá parikiirtitá.

    [Keeping good company leads to liberation, whereas the company of bad people leads to greater bondage. The mudrańam – shunning – of bad company is called mudrá sádhaná.]

    The verse quoted above is the theme or the central idea of the story. One meaning of the word kárańa is this central idea.

16. Saiṋcara [movement from subtle to crude] and prati-saiṋcara [movement from crude to subtle] constitute the cycle of creation. The relation between the material force and the cognitive force is the same at the end as it was at the beginning of the cyclic creative order. That means, in the embryonic stage of saiṋcara, the sentient principle dominates, but then gradually it begins to diminish and, due to the increasing force of other guńas and the growing dominance of the material cause, it becomes reduced to crudeness in the final stage of saiṋcara. And then, when pratisaiṋcara begins, the dominance of the material force gradually begins to diminish. At that stage, the dominance of other guńas [mutative and static] begin to wane and the dominance of Sattva-guńa[sentient] begins to grow. In the final stage of pratisaiṋcara, the supremacy of sattvaguńa is established, other guńas lose their influence, and the dominance of the material cause becomes nearly non-existent. The embryonic stage of saiṋcara may be called the causal state of the cycle of creation… thereafter it gradually takes the shape of its effect, step by step.

    The relation between the cognitive force and the material force that exists in the embryonic stage continues to exist even in the final stage of pratisaiṋcara. The only difference is that at the embryonic stage of saiṋcara, sattvaguńa gradually begins to reduce, and at the final stage of pratisaiṋcara, sattvaguńa regains its original nature, that is, goes back to its original stance. We can, of course, call the embryonic stage of saiṋcara the causal state, although the cognitive force and material force do not strictly exist at that stage. The final stage of pratisaiṋcara cannot be called kárańa, because that is actually the culmination of its effect. So we call it sámányávasthá. If the first one is described as kárańadeha [causal body], the second one should be described as sámányadeha [body beyond the subtle layer of mind].

17. The string that is used for counting beads is called japamálá in Sanskrit, tasbi in Arabic and “rosary” in English. The string contains sometimes 108 beads, sometimes 100, and sometimes a different number of beads according to the instructions of a particular preceptor. A round of beads will indicate how many times the beads have been counted. It is necessary to keep some tangible mark at the point where one round is complete. The bead that immediately follows that mark is called “kárańávasthá of japakriyá” and kárańagut́i [causal bead].

18. Before an action is carried out, it is preceded by a vibration of thought emanating from a preśańii-tattva [fundamental source of momentum]. This preśańii-tattva, which is original, is the creator of the next action. It is called “noumenal”. Some people think that, like many other words, this is also a Latin word. No, this is not true. It is a very old German word – so old that the modern German language had not yet evolved. On the other side of this noumenal entity lie various forces manifested in diverse actions. If we call the preśańii-shakti the noumenal cause, we will call its opposite the phenomenal effect. If we say that falsehood is the noumenal cause of all phenomenal crimes, then it will mean that falsehood is the preśańii-tattva of all crimes. This noumenal cause is called kárańa. If there is no falsehood, most sins will not manifest. If there is no noumenal cause, then there is no phenomenal effect. So this connotation of kárańa is particularly valuable.

19. In most animals, and particularly in human beings, there are various kinds of nerve cells and nerve fibres. In common parlance the word nád́ii [channels] is used to mean these nerves, but they are not the same. The nerves are of two kinds: sensory nerves and motor nerves. The sensory nerves transmit the inferences through the gateway of organs to the nerve cells. The organs through which the inferences are received are called sensory organs. The motor nerves transmit the messages of the nerve cells to the [motor] organs which then express them. In that case the gateways of organs are called motor organs. In the bodies of many animals, and particularly in the bodies of human beings, there are five sensory organs: eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin. Their function is extro-internal, to bring something within. So, another name for these is antahkarańa. The motor organs are five fold: mouth, hands, legs, genitals and anus. Their function is intro-external. So they are called bahihkarańa. Five means of internalization, five means of externalization and the mind constitute eleven organs. The word kárańa also means antahkarańa.

20. To murder someone or even an attempt to murder is called kárańa.

21. What is used as an instrument or material to complete a task or used as an aid in the execution of an action is also called kárańa. For example, in order to make rasagolla [a juicy, spherical-shaped sweet] you need curdled milk [cheese] and sugar. So, curdled milk and sugar will be called the kárańa or cause of rasagolla. The potter needs clay to make a pitcher with the help of the potter’s wheel. So the clay will be called the kárańa of the pitcher. In order to cut bamboo with a cutting instrument made of iron, the weapon must have a handle for holding it. So this handle will be called the kárańa of the weapon.

22. It is not possible to milk a cow unless it has teats. The teats are necessary for milking. So the teat of a cow is called kárańa. Some of you may not know that the round piece of stone or wood on which a chapati is rolled is called in Sanskrit and chaste Bengali cakrii (cakrii >cakkii >cákki >cákii). But the rolling pin is called kárańá/kárańii . The instrument that we use while scraping the pulp of a hard coconut is called nárkol-kuruńii in colloquial Bengali, and in Sanskrit it is called cakrińii.

    Just take note of a few more household items – káḿsya means a water tumbler made of any material. It does not mean only tumblers made of bell-metal. Káḿsiká/káḿshiká means káṋsi or a kind of utensil; káḿsik/káḿshik means bát́i or bát́t́ika [a round cup without a handle]. Prastarbát́t́ika >pattharabát́t́ia > pátharbát́i [a cup made of stone].

23. The interest (simple or compound) accrued on money is also called kárańa.

24. Whether a literary work is aesthetically sound or not, there is a point in its expression when one obtains almost a complete grasp of its flow and nature. One gains an idea of the entirety of that drama, narrative or fiction. The particular point in a literary work at which one gains an understanding of the remainder is called kárańa. Sometimes we get an idea of the whole after hearing or reading just a little, sometimes we realize it only in the final stage, and sometimes again only after the completion of the reading. The farther on in the story we get this idea, the greater is the suspense in that drama or novel, whatever may be the case. The greater part of this suspense depends on the skill of the artist, and very little depends on the liveliness of the subject.

    This causal part of the composition makes the composition most charming, and this is also called kárańa.

25. The field of wisdom from whence emanate all kinds of feelings, all kinds of sensations, is also called kárańa. It is in this sense that Sarasvatii, who is regarded as the goddess of learning in mythology, is also called kárańa.

26. It is sometimes seen that, prompted by sheer personal interest or the interest of the community, a person deliberately pushes another person towards the path of destruction, or inspires that person to follow the path to hell. This act of deliberately leading someone astray by persuading them to take the path of evil or the path of hell and thus darken the brightness of their future with the small dark cloud of petty selfish interest – this mean mentality or mean thought – is also called kárańa.

27. In the huge expanse of time, we decide on some unit [of measurement] according to our convenience. The time that the moon takes to go once around the earth, that is, the time taken by the moon to go around all the houses of the zodiac, is called a lunar month. The lunar month is thus one unit. The time taken by the moon to cover one particular star in its orbit is called a lunar day or tithi [a day of the moon]. The lunar day is part of the previously-mentioned unit. Twelve lunar months make one lunar year. This lunar year is twelve times the lunar month. The extra month that is added [to the lunar calendar] approximately once in three years is meant to bring about parity with the unit of the solar year. The time taken by the earth to go around the sun along the zodiac in 360 degrees makes one solar year. This solar year is also a unit. The earth takes twenty-four hours to revolve on its axis and bring every part of its surface to face the sun. This period of twenty-four hours is also a unit in the measurement of time. All these units are also called kárańa.

    One of you was asking about maháshauṋkha, is that not so? Then listen. It should be borne in mind that if words like yátrá, nidrá, máḿsa, shauṋkha and shúdra are prefixed by mahá [great], it affects the meaning adversely. These words should not be prefixed by mahá when used in the normal sense (mahaiṋchabdah na yujyate). Maháyátrá does not mean a great journey, maháyátrá means death; mahánidrá does not mean a long sleep, mahánidrá means death; mahámáḿsa does not mean plenty of meat or very good meat, mahámáḿsa means human flesh. Maháshauṋkha does not mean a large conch shell, maháshauṋkha means a human skull; maháshúdra does not mean a great Shúdra [a person belonging to the lowest caste], but a milkman.

    If some scripture or some great man uses the prefix mahá in a sense other than the correct sense, then we can accept such usage as an exception, but such usage does not absolve it of its grammatical error. In the Vedas, at some places, the word shikśá has been spelt as shiikśá for the sake of rhythm. Even if we accept it as an exceptional sagacious application, we cannot ignore the grammatical flaw, because in the verbal root shikś, only i was used, both in common parlance and in Vedic Sanskrit.

Footnotes

(1) Ga means “an expansive land”. Gam means “towards the expansive land or in the expansive land”. Gá means “a woman who is going”. Gam + gá, i.e., gauṋgá means that river which is going towards the expansive land. The ma in the word gam is not the end phoneme of a word. It is the inflected form of the accusative singular. Since the end ma is not the phonemic end-ma one has to write gauṋgá and not gaḿgá.

(2) We get the word káya by adding the suffix ghaiṋ to the verbal root ci. The word káyá is wrong. Here the word kśudrakáyá is not an independent word. By adding the feminine marker áp to the word following the rule striyám áp we get the word káyá).

(3) Compare with the author’s Ánanda Sútram, Sútra 1-2. –Trans.

(4) Devatá is feminine gender. Whether it is male or female, that is, “god” or “goddess”, the feminine gender is used indiscriminately in all cases.

Chapter 3	Shabda Cayaniká Part 4

Kárpat́ika

Karpat́ + t́hak = kárpat́ika. In its etymological sense, kárpat́ika means “a thing related to cloth”.

1. In common usage it refers to “a thing made of cloth”, such as a cotton wrapper, bandage, strip (pat́ii), etc. Many people think that pat́ii is a foreign word. But that is not true. It is a Sanskrit word used in Bengali in its original form.

   You are possibly aware of the fact that there was a time when people used to bother too much about castes. And in this regard, they displayed terrible intolerance. Caste-discrimination was about to strangle humanism. In many cases this happened. People belonging to the so-called lower strata of society were not really considered human beings. In certain spheres they were treated worse than animals. It was not thought that a food item must be discarded – it is not considered so even now – when a mouse, a mole, a fly or mosquito touched it. But what to speak of it being touched by certain so called lower-caste people … or their entering the kitchen … or their sitting in the kitchen veranda – in certain cases, they were even barred from entering the courtyard of the house. Although it was loudly claimed that everything is the manifestation of Brahma, Sarvaḿ khalvidaḿ Brahma, in reality all kinds of casteism were concealed within the boundaries of religion.

   In those days the boomerang of this religious bigotry did not spare even the heads of society. On the contrary, it was Brahmans who did the greatest injury to other Brahmans. The descendents of Krttivas Thakur (his nephew’s line) had to carry a social stigma because Krttivas Thakur had committed the offence of translating the Rámáyańa⁽¹⁾ into Bengali. A high-caste Brahman was downgraded due to leaving his village to settle in another. Thus surnames like Banerjees became Kusháriis, Batabyals, Máscaŕaks; similarly, Chatterjees were downgraded to Káiṋjiilals, Pákŕáshiis; Bhattacharyas became Chakravartis. For a petty offence a person was expelled from his or her caste or expelled from his or her religion. People were forced to renounce their religion or undergo various kinds of persecution under pressure of circumstances. Looking more closely, it would seem that in those days the only job of one class of people was to find fault with others, to ruin people in the name of religion.

   At that time, in the district of Birbhum there was an intelligent man named Deviibar Ghatak. In order to save people from this precarious situation, he formulated a system of communities comprising people who had similar kinds of faults or qualities. As a result, no one could henceforth be summarily expelled from his or her caste. Moreover, since people of similar offences or qualities belonged to the same community, there was no question of vilification of one person by another. Amongst the Brahmans of the Ráŕh region (Banerjee, Mukherjee, Chatterjee, Gaunguly, Ghosal), this community system was called melbandhan (Phuliyá Mel, Sarvánandii Mel, Khardaha Mel, etc.). The same melbandhan was called pat́iibandhan by the Brahmans of the Barendra class (such as Sanyal, Bhadurii, Lahirii, Bagcii, Maetra). Those who had lost their original aristocratic Brahman status but had not yet been fully incorporated into a lower Brahman caste, that is, those who were in an intermediary stage, were called bhauṋgakuliin [a fallen aristocrat]. They are called káp in Barendra society. However, you understand that this pat́ii is neither an indigenous word nor a foreign word but is in fact a Sanskrit word.

2. Another meaning of the word kárpat́ika is thick socks. The thick strip of cloth which soldiers use or formerly used to wrap their legs with is also called kárpat́ika.

3. Kárpat́ika also means “parasite” (pargáchá). Some synonyms of parasite, that is, pargáchá, are parajiivii, kárpat́ika, kántára etc.

Kárpás

Kr + pás = karpás. Karpás means “cotton”. The derivative form of karpás in Mágadhii Prákrta is kápás (in Bengali also – in Bengali it is desirable to use á); in colloquial Maharastrian Prákrta it is kápus. But the original Sanskrit word is karpás and not kárpás.

1. The word kárpás means cotton goods such as shirts, pants, caps, ribbons, etc.

2. Kárpás also means “light socks”. It is better to remember that in ancient times ordinary people used light socks or kárpás, while soldiers used kárpat́ika, or thick socks.

3. In common usage kárpás also means “paper”, because in those days paper was made of cotton. Paper made with cotton through an indigenous process was called tulot́ kágaj [“cottony paper”] in colloquial Bengali. The word kágaj [most common Bengali word for “paper”] is not a native word; it is a foreign word. It has come from Arabic. The original Arabic word is kágad.

Káriká

Karaka + t́á = káriká. Etymologically káriká means someone who does an important and responsible job or is utilized to do such a job. In common usage it has the following meanings:

1. A socially-outcast woman. In ancient times men who were engaged in the profession of spying were called gahapuruśa. They were not generally considered as belonging to the respectable class of society, because they were obliged to do many mean or heinous deeds in the course of their work. The women who were engaged in this profession were called viśakanyá [“poison-girls”]. Generally they used to have poison in their rings. In the event of any possibility of being caught by the enemy or apprehension of a secret being divulged, they would commit suicide by swallowing that poison. That is why they were called viśakanyá. In the course of their work, these viśakanyás had to go to many different places and operate in many undesirable environments. So women of good families did not take up this profession. Generally the job of a poison-girl was done by socially-outcast women. These socially-outcast women engaged in important work were called kárikás.

2. Dance is a science but is presented through artistic skill. The dancers who acquired special proficiency in this artistic skill were called kárikás.

3. Acting is also an art of high order. The actresses who acquired special proficiency in this art were called kárikás.

4. People who propagated the main ideas of a theory or a thesis in the society were called exponents of that theory. Generally the exponents did not explicate their theories themselves; the interpreter was usually a different person. The explication of a theory according to the words used [in the text] was called t́iika. Special explanation or criticism of a particular part of a theory was called t́ippani or annotation. General interpretation, glossary and annotations used to be presented separately. But if all these items were rolled into one and incorporated into one discourse, then it was called káriká. For example, we have Sáḿkhyakáriká, Dhámatiikáriká, Vaeyásikakáriká, etc.

5. An idea, whether simple or complex, remains confined to the world of thought unless it receives the golden touch of reality. An unrealized idea is of less value than even the ice of the polar regions. In order to translate an idea into reality, it is essential to combine the wisdom of the mind with a longing [for the implementation of the idea]. The process of manifesting an idea involves several operations. First, there is a mental planning about how to manifest the idea in reality. Secondly, providing the strength necessary to translate the thought into action is required. Thirdly, the strengthening of the infrastructure on the ground for its immediate and subsequent expression must be done. When all these three conditions are harmoniously combined with a touch of expertise, then and only then can an idea attain manifestation in reality. This manifestation of an idea is called káriká.

6. In very few cases is an idea translated into reality on the strength of one single person or due to the scholarly motivation of that one person. In most cases it needs a medium or more than one medium. This medium is also known as a káriká.

7. An action is always prompted by an inner inspiration. This inspirational force is sometimes internal in origin [inherent in the individual], at other times external in origin [derived from another person]. Whatever may be the case, it is a kind of samvit [awakened consciousness], and if this samvit is not there, the result is never realized. This samvit is also called káriká.

8. Every creature needs a means of livelihood for its existence. With this means of livelihood, one preserves one’s physical existence and makes the necessary existential enhancements and refinements. This enhancement, refinement or preservation of one’s structure is referred to as the crude means of living. The lower animals may have some need for a psychic means of livelihood in addition to their need for a physical means of livelihood, but human beings have a great need for a psychic means of livelihood. It is so indispensable – be it a crude or subtle or causal entity – that the mind rushes to it and revolves round it. This psychic objectivity is called mental pabulum. In the absence of this mental pabulum a human being loses mental balance and either becomes a lunatic or die. Some animals of a high order also face the same fate. This mental pabulum is also called káriká.

9. Soon after the beginning of civilization, that is, soon after men formed communities or societies, the practices of lending, borrowing and usury came into existence. The rate of interest was determined in different ages and at different places by the intensity of the need to lend or to borrow. Whatever may be the kind of usury, the entire process of usury is known as káriká.

10. You have seen the shyámá bird. A shyámá bird [a song bird of the thrush family] is a small bird. You also must have heard the song of the shyámá bird throughout Bengal. Do you recall there is a song by the poet, Satyendranath Datta: Kotháy d́áke doyel shyámá phiuṋe gáche gáche nácere [“Where do you find that place where doyels⁽²⁾ and shyámás sing and phiuṋes⁽³⁾ dance on the branches of a tree?”] Yes,I am talking about that shyámá bird. This shyámá bird is also called káriká bird or kálriká bird or kálri bird.

11. All of you must have tasted watermelon. Watermelons are of various kinds. The skin of some is black, of others green, and of still others whitish. Some have red pulp, some slightly reddish, and others yellow. Those with yellow pulp are Chinese watermelons; they are very small in size but extremely sweet. According to botanists, the place of origin of the watermelon is the Arab countries. Whatever may be the case, it is generally presumed that this watermelon first came to Kaliuṋga [coastal Orissa] by a sea route. That is why, irrespective of its shape and size, the watermelon is called káliuṋga (kaliuṋga + ań) in chaste Bengali. The black-skinned watermelon in particular is called káriká or káliká or káliiphalam. A Kharmujá [muskmelon] is called kharmuj in Bengali; in Sanskrit it is called sphot́ak or sphot́an. And phut́i or báuṋgi [another smaller variety] is called sphut́ika. So you understand that káriká also means a watermelon with black skin.

12. All of you have eaten curd, or yoghurt. In towns yoghurt is generally bought from the market. But many people curdle milk at home if sufficient milk is available. In order to make dai, or yoghurt (dadhi > dahi > dai), it is necessary to mix some acidic substance after the milk has been heated. This acidic substance is called dadhyamla (dadhi + amla) in Sanskrit, the colloquial Bengali form of which is dambal. In some places dambal is called joŕan. It is this dambal which is also called káriká or káliká or kálrii.

Káru

By using the suffix uń with the verbal root kr, we get the word káru. The etymological meaning of the word káru is “devotion to work” or “to go on working efficiently”.

1. In common usage, káru means any kind of fine work. Whether it is needle work or crochet work, woodwork or work with chisel and hammer, if the final product is of superfine quality, we call it káru. In this connection you should remember one thing. Only work done by hand is called shilpa [art] or shilpankriyá [an art product]. In other words, shilpa or shilpana means work in which manual skill is required. If you use the word hastashilpa, you commit the fallacy of tautology, because hastashilpa would literally mean “a handicraft made by hand”. When referring to a good singer, people sometimes use the word kant́hashilpii [vocal artist]. The word sounds like the expression “a gold iron-cup” [or a square circle]. Where is the action of the hand when singing with one’s throat? But one can use the word setárshilpii [sitar artist], because the hands are used when playing the sitar. However, if someone can sing songs of a very high quality, such singing can be placed in the category of káru, because it is a superior skill.

2. In ancient times a small, very sharp and whetted chisel called naruń was used when working with metal and wood. The work done with this kind of chisel is called káru. There was a time, in Vishnupur of Mallabhum, that naruń was used in renowned terracotta works. So they also fall in the category of káru.

3. Engravings done on wood, metal or any other material, irrespective of the kind of implements used, were considered part of káru.

4. The art of presenting a scientific theory or thesis to the common people in a delectable manner also comes under the category of káru. For example, acoustics is a science, but exemplifying it through delightful musical sound does not belong to science; it belongs to art. This kind of art is also a part of káru. And this art may or may not be shilpana [arts and crafts using one’s hands].

5. All arts and crafts where tools are used will be included in the category of káru-vidyá [káru crafts].

6. The profession of people who are involved in the káru-vidyá mentioned above is also known as káru.

7. A human being is compelled to do something for survival. Some people use domestic animals in various ways for their livelihood. For example, a person domesticates bulls to use them in tilling the soil or in pulling the cart. A bull does not till the soil or draw a cart on his own. Some persons pull rickshaws, others drive taxis, run shops, write books, and still others teach students – all these are means of livelihood. All these are public vocations; there is nothing secret about them. This kind of public vocation is also called káru.

8. Many people often have a secret profession in addition to their public profession. For example, there are people who work as farmers during the daytime but commit dacoity at night; other people officially work in various organizations but are secretly engaged in smuggling. In some cases the income from this secret profession is much more than the income from their public means of livelihood. Their public profession in such cases is only a charade. The secret money-making methods of these corrupt people, or this secret profession, is also called káru.

9. A passable bath does not take much time. But it takes a lot of time to cleanse the body thoroughly or to satisfactorily massage the body with oil. A busy person can afford to have such a thorough bath only on holidays. Another name for such a rigorous bath is kárukarańa.

   There are some people who are over-sensitive to cold (kámbala); and there are some persons and animals that are sensitive to bath. Cows, goats and several other kinds of animals are extremely scared of bath. If you sprinkle a few drops of water on them, they will at once run away. There are some persons also who not only avoid kárukarańa [rigorous bath] but avoid their usual bath on some pretext or the other. Such a person would sometimes say, “Today it is very cold,” or sometimes would say, “Today I have caught a cold,” or again at another time would say, “Today I am in a great hurry, so in spite of my willingness, I cannot have a bath today.” We shall call such persons bath-sensitive. Such bath-scared people should be bathed by force.

   Since one meaning of káru is shilpii [craftsman], Vishvakarmá, the Puranic god, is also called káru. According to this legend, Brahmá, [mythological god of creation], at the request of Yama [god of death], created Citragupta⁽⁴⁾ (the forefather of the Kayastha caste) out of his own body. In the capacity of office superintendent, Citragupta keeps the records of the death ceremonies of the world for the god Yama. Similarly, Brahmá created Vishvakarmá from his body at the request of Baebasvata Manu. Of course Brahmá, according to Baevasvata Manu, had been carrying on the act of creation, but due to his unsophisticated knowledge of art, his creations were becoming very uninteresting. It is said that the moment he was born, Vishvakarmá brought about a flow of infinite variety in creation. After the last day of Bhádra [the fifth month of the Bengalee calendar, from mid-August to mid-September], the picturesque variety of autumnal beauty becomes conspicuous throughout the land. So in some parts of the country people worship Vishvakarmá, the god of artistic creativity, on the last day of Bhádra.

   There are serious differences of opinion amongst connoisseurs of art regarding the mount of Visvakarmá. According to some, it is a peacock, a symbol of variegated colours; according to others, it is a pánikot́ika or pánkaoŕi [a species of seabird akin to the cormorant], and something still different according to others.

   In the artistic imagination, it was once thought that Vishvakarmá was obliged to stop thrice during the course of his creative activities. It so happened that he was unable to imagine a new animal, and then, by putting together parts of different animals, he created the camel, the ship of the desert. Different parts of the camel have similarities to the parts of various animals. A Bactrian camel has two humps. On another similar occasion, Vishvakarmá paused and, putting together parts of different horned animals, created a new kind of horned animal. It is this horned animal which is known as niilgái, or the Indian antelope. He paused for the third time when planning the creation of a tree that can be compared to a human being. This time he happened to create the coconut. Do you not you think that the different parts of a coconut have similarities with various parts of a human being? You must have noticed the large and round, eye-like holes of a coconut near the stalk. In any case, one meaning of káru is Vishvakarmá.

Kárńa

Karńa + ań = kárńa. The etymological meaning of the word is “ears” or “related to the ears (auricular)”. Etymologically, an ear ornament is also called kárńa. In common usage kárńa means “earring”. Another meaning of the word kárńa is “the antelope group of creatures”. Although deer and antelope are similar, there are certain differences. For example:

1. The faeces of deer are like pellets, like the faeces of goats or sheep. The excrement of an antelope is clayish or viscid like cow dung or the excrement of a buffalo, horse or elephant.

2. Generally the tail of a deer is short and tilted slightly upward. The tail of an antelope, however, hangs downward like the tail of a cow.

3. Frequently but not always, a deer gives very little milk; in comparison the milk of an antelope is somewhat greater in amount.

4. In most cases a deer has two teats, while an antelope has four.

5. A deer moves faster than an antelope. The famous krśnasár mrga [black deer] of India, which is called a deer by many, is actually an antelope. The animals residing in the Gauṋgá basin also belong to the antelope family.

6. The call of a deer is also different from the call of an antelope.

7. The animals of the deer family are more timorous than the animals belonging to the antelope family.

8. The animals of the antelope family have more flesh.

9. When the animals of the dog family or cat family get a chance to kill either a deer or an antelope, they first attack the antelope, although the antelope fights for some time in self-defence, while a deer makes no such effort.

10. In some cases, species of the antelope family surrender to domestication, while in other cases they do not; but animals of the deer family can rarely be domesticated. Quite often it has been seen that even a deer domesticated for a long time, once set free, never wants to return.

11. Species of the deer family like to live in freedom, even if involving hardship, although they do not feel this as strongly as a jackal or a zebra. But most species of the antelope accept domestication if given comfortable conditions. Of course, there are exceptions.

Kárśńa

Krśńa + ań = kárśńa. The etymological meaning of kárśńa is “something related to krśńa [which can mean ́black’]” or “related to the colour black”. In common usage, kárśńa means “the black antelope”, also known as the alpaca. The silky, scintillating cloth made from the wool of the alpaca is also called “alpaca”. Due to human exploitation, this species of antelope known as “alpaca” has become virtually extinct. Two words, krśńakárńa and kárśńa, can be used for the alpaca.

Kála

We get the word kála by adding the suffix ghaiṋ to the verbal root kál. The verbal root kál means, “to sound”, “to measure”, “to count”, “to weigh”. So in its etymological sense, kála means “what has been measured” or “what has been sounded”. In common usage, by kála we understand the following:

1. A measurement of time. The moon moves around the earth. In its orbit, it crosses the twelve houses of the zodiac. The mind’s measurement of this single revolution is called kála [which sometimes means “time” in general], and this particular time taken by the moon is called a lunar month. For nearly half of this lunar month the moon remains in a diminishing or waning process due to the narrowing of the reflection of the sun. The rest of the time it remains in a gradually waxing condition due to the broadening of the reflection of the sun. So we have divided the lunar month into two fortnights – the bright fortnight (shukla pakśa) and the dark fortnight (krśńa pakśa), starting with the new moon and the full moon respectively. These two fortnights are also measurements of time.

   The time taken by the earth to go around the sun when it passes through the twelve houses of the zodiac is called a solar year (365 or 366 days). During this solar year, because of the angular difference in the axis, sometimes the northern part of the earth tilts towards the sun, and at other times the southern part. Accordingly we sometimes say “northern tilt” [summer solstice], and at other times “southern tilt” [winter solstice]. In order to present it symbolically, we say that the sun is in the Tropic of Cancer or in the Tropic of Capricorn. All these are also measurements of time. Every house of the zodiac subtends an angle of 30 degrees at the centre. Although in every case it makes a 30 degree angle, the segments of the orbit are not equal. So the earth takes different times to cross the various segments. We call the time taken to cross one segment a solar month. A solar month generally consists of 30 or 31 days, but in rare cases it may also be 29 or even 32 days. All these are kálas.

   The mental measurement of the motivity of action and the result of the measurement are called time. So time is not a beginningless and unbroken entity. In the world of imagination the concept of eternity or Mahákála [Eternal Kála] is both charming and terrible, but in the phenomenal world the measure-ments or the measuring units of time do not exist when the mind is absent or non-existent. That is why in purely philosophical speculation, the notion of an eternal, undivided temporal reality suffers from the fallacy of infinite regress. In ancient times some people imagined eternity as a summation of these fragments of time or as Mahákála, and others developed the philosophy of kśańiikavijiṋánaváda or the science of moments (a Buddhist doctrine), based on the assumption that the rapid passage of time is a moving entity. Although not wholly theoretical but to some extent practical, the Kálacakrayána Tantra⁽⁵⁾, the Hevajra Tantra and the Kauṋkálamálinii Tantra by and large subscribe to this view.

2. The word kála means “sound”; in special cases, the sound of death.

3. Another meaning of the word kála is negative colour (not colourlessness). Negative colour means absolutely black colour.

4. Kála also means a kálabhujaga or water snake. Bhujaga means “one who walks with one’s hands” (bhuj + gam + d́a = bhujaga). In the villages of Bengal, well-known non-poisonous snakes such as dhoṋŕá, dhyámná and jaldhoṋŕá, fall in the category of kálabhujaga. They are not as dangerous as their names would suggest; in fact, they are not dangerous at all. They have been given such names possibly because they are rather large in size.

5. Every manifested object of this universe has a definite dimension. It comes from an unknown world, enters a particular circuit of time and then returns to the unknown world. This coming, staying in motion, and then returning to the unknown world constitute its existential time. The last point of existential time completes the temporal fullness of its life. That is why, both in Sanskrit and in Bengali, death is called kála. If someone after climbing a tall tree falls down and dies, we say, “Climbing the tree was his kála.”

6. In English we use the word “blue-black” to suggest the mixture of the jet-black and dark blue colours. Many of you must have used ink of this blue-black colour. Its speciality is such that its blue is so dark that it seems to have merged into the jet-black. That is why another name for this blue-black colour is kálánta varńa [“the colour at the end of black”] .This kálánta varńa is called kála. Another meaning of the word kálánta is “the end of an age”.⁽⁶⁾ We can call the end of the Satyayuga, Satyayugánta or Satyakálánta. By kálántar we understand that one age is coming to an end and another age is about to begin.

7. There is a particular [social] condition on one side of yugasandhi, that is, the point of transition, and another condition on the other side. The fixed system, according to which the temporal end of all beings is brought about by the Absolute, is also called kála. For that reason, another name of the mythological god [of death] Yamarája is kála. Pluto, the western god of ancient times, may be called kála in this sense. Since Yamarája brings about the temporal anta [end] of the life of a creature, another name of Yama is kálántaka.

8. The Entity who keeps on beating the drum of time, and at whose instance the message of time is sounded, echoed and vibrated in entities everywhere – that fearful entity or Bhaerava (bhae + rava = bhaerava, “one whom people fear”) – is called Kálabhaerava. “Kálabhaerava” is another name of Lord Shiva. Those persons who, inspired by this Cosmic acoustic centre of Shiva, create ever-new epicentres in their psychic sphere and transmit the various acoustic effects throughout the world, are called bhaeravas. And their primal source, that is, Shiva, is called “Kálabhaeerava”.

9. Shiva is called Paiṋcánana or Paiṋcavaktraḿ due to his multiple manifestations. It is not that he has five faces but that he has five different manifestations. It is said:

   Dhyáyennityaḿ maheshaḿ rajatagirinibhaḿ cárucandravataḿsam,
   Ratnakalpojjvaláuṋgaḿ parashu-mrga- barábhiitihastaḿ prasannam.
   Padmásiinaḿ samantáḿ stutamamaragańaerbyághrakrttiḿ vasánam,
   Vishvádyaḿ vishvabiijaḿ nikhilabhayaharaḿ paiṋcavaktraḿ trinetram.

   [One should constantly meditate on Maheshvara, who is like a silver mountain, whose ornament is the lovely moon – whose limbs are brightened with the splendour of jewels, with axe in hand, holding animals, bestowing boons, ever-blissful – seated in lotus posture, wearing a tiger-skin, worshipped by all the Gods – the seed, the cause of this vast world,who removes the boundless fears of the entire universe – the One with the five faces and three eyes.]

   Shiva symbolizes the beginning of a new era in humanity’s evolutionary march. In order to mould the character of a person, it is also necessary to discipline that person. So for those five manifestations, it is as if Shiva had five faces. The face just to the right of the central face is called Iishána – one who asks human beings to follow the path of righteousness and tells them to refrain from following the path of unrighteousness. The extreme face on the right side is called Dakśińeshvara – one who always remains with those persons who are inspired by righteous thoughts. The first face on the left side is called Kálágni – one who rules people for their welfare. The extreme face on the left side is called Vámadeva – one who rules very strictly with the scepter of thunder. This Vámadeva is a terror for sinners due to its severity. The central face of Shiva, with its expression of profound mercy, is called Kalyáńasundaram. However, the word kála is also used for the first face on the left side, which is generally known as Kálágni.

10. You certainly know that in Sanskrit, in a general sense, kaláya means any kind of pulse. In the spoken language of Kolkata kaŕái is used. Kaŕáibhájá or fried kaŕái means any kind of fried pulse. In the Ráŕh region also, in some places mung pulse is called mugkalái, and khesárii pulse is called khesáriikaláya. In a special sense, the word kaláya is used to mean birikalái or black gram. This birikalái is called biulir dál in the Kolkata area. In its different varieties it is called maskalái in Bengali and máśa or máśakaláya in Sanskrit. In the Gorkhali language also it is called máśa, while in Punjabi it is called máśa or máh. Kaláis of the large variety are called rájmáśa or rájmáh. Whatever the case may be, one name of this birikalái⁽⁷⁾, which is highly nutritious, is kála or kálakaláya.

11. Siisaka [lead] or siisá is a soft metal; it also melts very easily (siisaka > siisa-a > siisá > siise). The human beings came in touch with lead soon after the dawn of civilization. Even in Sanskrit the word siisaka is very old. The use of different chemical products made of lead can also be traced back to very ancient times. The vermilion that most Indian women used was a lead product. But the vermilion that today’s women use is made with the help of mercuric sulphide. However, in some communities the lead-based vermilion that is colloquially called met́esindur is still in use. The word siisá that is used by certain people in North India to mean glass is not derived from the Sanskrit siisaka; it is a foreign word. Molten lead or the lead that has been melted is also called kála.

12. While cooking, sometimes the bottom of a pot is burnt due to carelessness. As a result, the food being cooked also is burnt. In that case, the burnt food not only emits a smouldering smell, it becomes either fully or partly blackened. That fully burnt or half-burnt food is called kála.

13. Iron or material made of iron rusts if kept in a humid atmosphere. This rust is also called kála.

14. The planet Saturn is bluish according to some and blackish according to others. This planet, situated quite far from the sun, has various distinctive features. Since it has a large number of satellites, these satellites together form a type of ring, and due to the refractions of light particles from this ring, certain changes have taken place in the colour of its body. According to the Puranic legend, the sun is the father of Saturn, and the shadow, the wife of the sun, is its mother. That is why Saturn was also named Cháyátanaya [the son of the shadow]. Another name for Saturn or Shani (it can also be spelt as Shańi) or Cháyátanaya is kála or kálagraha.

15. The number of black birds is not vast, but also not meager either. Of these, one is kokila [cuckoo] or kákapuccha [one with the tail of a crow]. Kála or kálapakśii is a synonym for cuckoo, that is, kokila or pika or kálapuccha.

16. I told you a little while ago that kálabhujaga does not necessarily mean a dangerous snake. The water snake, particularly jaldhoṋŕá, is called kálabhujaga. But the snake called kála or kálanága is very dangerous. Kálanága means king cobra (shauṋkhacuŕa). This snake can be from 12 to 14 feet long in the Sunderban region. But it is much longer in countries like Burma, Thailand and Kambouj (Vietnam, Combodia and Laos) etc. In some places it can be as long as 22 feet or even 24 feet. Its hood displays a spiral pattern like a conch shell, and that is the reason why this poisonous snake is called shauṋkhacuŕa, in the sense that it has a conch shell on its crown.

    Because of humanity’s ruthless destruction, the shauṋkhacuŕa species is on the verge of extinction. If steps are not taken immediately for its preservation, we may find it extinct in the near future. They will meet the same fate as the dodo birds of Africa and the leopards of India.

17. Iron ore, hematite or unrefined iron in any form is called káladhátu [black metal]. When the principal metal is extracted after melting the entire quantity of unrefined metal, then it is again melted for various uses. In Sanskrit and in Bengali, sometimes various words are used for unrefined metal and refined metal. Take, for example, the word rúpya. One meaning of rúpya is sudarshana (in masculine gender), “good looking” or “handsome”; sudarshaná is feminine (beautiful), unrefined rúpo [silver], unrefined sońá [gold], unrefined silver bar, unrefined gold bar, etc. A refined silver bar must be called rajatarúpya or rajatadańd́a [silver stick], a refined gold bar must be called suvarńarúpya or suvarńadańd́a [gold stick], a piece of unrefined silver or gold must be called rúpyakaḿ, refined silver must be called raopya, refined gold will be called svarńa, suvarńa, kaiṋcana, kańaka, hema, hirańa, jámbunada, etc. A refined piece of silver or a silver coin will be called raopyakaḿ⁽⁸⁾ (the word t́áká has come from its other name, t́auṋká). In the same way, the unrefined iron is called kála. For refined iron there is no need to use the word kála. But in ancient Sanskrit literature, I have seen the occasional use of the word kála for refined iron; it would have been better not to use it in that manner.

18. Many of you have possibly seen pine trees. This tree of the deodar family likes a slightly cold climate. In some parts of India this tree is called deodár [Polyalthia longifolia]. In other places, our very familiar devadáru tree is called ashoka⁽⁹⁾ (Sarica indica). It is absolutely improper to use the word ashoka for deodár. Ashoka does not belong to the pine family. It prefers a wet and warm climate. Although the ashoka flower is generally slightly reddish, there are also yellow, golden and white ashoka flowers. This tree, belonging to the sarica indica family, has thick and bushy foliage. But a pine tree or deodár is tall and straight. Pine wood is used in making paper and also in making matchsticks. The gum or resin of the pine tree has many chemical uses and is also used for medicinal purposes. The word rasáiṋjana is used for both the gum and the oil of pine. The special name for pine oil is rasataela. Another name for resins or pine – rasáiṋjana – is kála. Pine oil has been in use as a medicine for phlegmatic diseases. It shares similar properties with eucalyptus oil.

19. What we describe as aguru [incense powder] we actually get from the black juice produced by a type of small insect from the tree known as ágara [Aloe wood; Aquillaria agollacha]. On entering the tree, these insects eat up parts of the tree and produce a black-coloured juice from their bodies through a [particular] chemical process. Since ancient times, this black juice is well known as aguru. The tree is called ágara because it [aguru] is obtained from this tree. Ágara trees grow in regions where there is heavy rainfall. It requires special care to sustain it in regions having light rainfall. In our part of Bengal, names like Ágarpárá, Ágartalá, etc., owe their origin to the ágara tree. The practice of making incense sticks by using rice paste and pounded aguru-smeared wood was prevalent even in ancient times. Such an incense stick is called ágarvátti in Hindustani even today, although neither ágara wood nor rice paste is used presently to make an ágarvátti [incense stick]. One variety of ágara⁽¹⁰⁾ is called kála or kálagandha or káláguru. Regarding the toilette of the girls of ancient India, Tagore writes:

    Kuruvaker parto cúŕá kálo kesher májhe,
    Liilákamal raito háte kii jáni kon káje.
    Alaka sájto kunda phule siriiś parto karńamúle
    Mekhaláte duliye dito navaniiper málá,
    Lodhraphuler shubhra reńu mákhto mukhe bálá.
    Dhárájantre snáner sheśe dhúper dhoṋyá dito keshe,
    Kálágurur guru gandha lege thákto sáje,
    Kuruvaker parto cúŕá kálo kesher májhe.

    [Girls used to crown their head by putting a red amaranth in their thick black locks, and used to hold a lovely lotus in their hand – I do not know why. They used to decorate their hair with multi-petaled jasmine; they used flowers of the rain tree as earrings; they used a garland of kadamba flowers as girdles; they used to powder their faces with the pollen of lodhra⁽¹¹⁾ , a cosmetic powder; they used to spray the smoke of incense sticks on the their hair after bathing. The heavy smell of kálaguru used to be a part of their cosmetics. They used to crown their heads by putting a red amaranth in their thick black locks.]

20. We have already spoken about kálabhujaga and kálanága. You must have also heard about kálasarpa. The black cobra is a subspecies of gokśura [Cobra de capello]. A gokśura is called gokhro in the Kolkata region. In the Ráŕh region, both the names – gokhro and kharis – are prevalent. Gokśura has many species and subspecies – káligokhro, padmagokhro, shauṋkha gokhro, etc., are examples. The Gokhro variety of snake generally lives in an old house in a residential area. When the tail of a very old gokśura falls off, quite often the people, instead of killing it, allow it to live in the house, and then they call it vástusápa [a residential snake]. The keut́e or cobra has several species and subspecies, such as kálakeut́e, álkeut́e, etc. A cobra generally lives outdoors in fields away from human habitation. The kálakeut́e generally lives away from human habitation in forests, bushes and shrubs.

    Since the body of álkeut́e is very warm [in comparison to other snakes], it usurps rat holes on the sides of earth ridges surrounding plots of pieces of agricultural land and lives there. When it feels very hot, it keeps its body submerged in water, keeping only its head above the water. Although álkeut́e is short, thin and as poisonous as any snake of the cobra family, its temper is always very hot ... If any person walking on the ridge inadvertently disturbs its peace, it at once rushes out and bites that person. But other snakes do not rush out to bite; they bite only in self-defence. Álkeut́e, kálakeut́e and common keut́e – all three – cannot stand heat. Many times they lie entwined along the rail lines at night when the rails are somewhat cold. On hearing the sound of a coming train, other snakes flee the rail lines, but the ill-tempered keut́e does not. Possibly it thinks, “Whom do I fear enough to run away from?” Accordingly it remains on the line. So most of the snakes that are run over by trains in the summertime are keut́es. The Sanskrit name of this keut́e is krśńagokśura or kálasarpa.

    The word sarpa is derived from the verbal root srp, which means “to crawl on the chest”. In English also, the word “reptile” means “to crawl with the support of the chest”. This krśńagokśura or kálasarpa can be called simply kála

    The snake is one of the oldest creatures on earth. The snake appeared on the earth long before the appearance of quadrupeds, in fact, even long before the appearance of birds. The snake belongs to the reptile species. The nature of the snake’s blood makes it difficult for it to survive in a cold country. Even in hot countries, snakes go into hibernation for several months during winter. Generally it can be said that the few snakes we find in cold countries are nonpoisonous. Snakes live primarily in tropical countries, particularly where there are adequate wet lands. In Bengal, India and Southeast Asia, particularly in the land of Shyámdesh [Thailand], the number of snakes and reptiles is exorbitantly high. I had direct, eye-witness experience of this when I was in Thailand. The climate of Bengal is fairly similar to that of Thailand. That is why Bengal is nearly as snake-infested as Thailand. A poet of Bengal has said :

    Bágher sauṋg yuddha kariyá ámrá báṋciyá áchi,
    Ámrá heláya nágere khelái sáperi mátháy náci.

    [We have survived fighting with tigers. We easily make the snake play and dance on its head.]

    There are not only more snakes in hot countries, they also have more venom in their bodies. This is the reason why in the villages of Bengal there are so many snakebite healers or ojhás. Due to fear of snakes, the domination of the snake goddess, Viśahari or Manasá, is also strongly felt [in India]. All over India there are many legends celebrating the glory of Manasá. The stories of Manasámauṋgal⁽¹²⁾, Padmávatii (Padumávát) as well the stories of Behulá and Lakhindar are particularly prevalent in eastern India. Most villages organize ritualistic ceremonies related to Manasá in the month of Bhádra. These ceremonies are held more often in the villages that have greater fear of snakes.

    Ye auṋge sayná kabhu shiuli phuler bhar
    Sei auṋge daḿshila re kála viśadhar;
    Lakhiindar, Lakhiindar, ámár Lakhiindar.

    [What a pity it is that the delicate body, unable to bear the weight of the night-jasmine flower, is bitten by the deadly poisonous cobra ... Oh Lakhiindar, Oh Lakhiindar, Oh my Lakhiindar! ...]

    *   *   *

    Shrávańete jhulan-dolan pathya ghrta-muŕi,
    Bhádramáse pántábhát khán Manasá buŕi.

    [During the swing-festival in the month of Shrávańa, the goddess Manasá eats fried rice and ghee. In the month of Bhádra she eats stale rice.]

    A snake runs away on seeing smoke. So Manasá, the snake-goddess, also does not like smoke. So runs the proverb, like eke má manasá tár opare dhunor gandha [“First it is Mother Manasá, and then on top of it the smell of burning incense.”] A snake fears the human being more than a human being fears the snake. However, defeated in the war of intelligence, the snake family is about to disappear completely from the surface of the earth. Furthermore, after human beings came to know about the medicinal values of snake venoms, they began killing snakes to collect their venom. Snake venom is used in various medicines prepared in allopathy, unani, ayurveda and homeopathy, (nyajá-cobra). In the Indian ayurvedic system, the effectiveness of spider venom, bee venom and snake venom in the treatment of poison has been clearly stated.

    In astrology, a particular, malefic constellation of stars is called kálasarpayoga. Some people believe that the congregation of too many planets in one particular house of the zodiac can bring about a cataclysmic upheaval in the world, and according to others, it can cause the total dissolution of the world. But, it has been seen that no such catastrophe takes place in reality. It is just possible, in the worst case scenario, that when a number of planets crowd together in the same orbit or the same angle of a particular house (of the zodiac), there is some radiational imbalance [from the planets]. This imbalance will not necessarily bring about a catastrophe – who knows, it may do good instead. Whatever the case may be, you are now acquainted with the word kálasarpayoga.

21. There are certain trees and plants that contain [[lethal]] poison. A person who knows these plants avoids them. Roots, barks, juices, fruits, flowers and seeds containing deadly poison are used by human beings for making medicines. Our very familiar kalke flower [Yellow oleander; Thevetia peruviana] is one such tree. Its flower or floral nectar does not contain any poison. But the fruits that appear after the flowers have fallen off contain poison. Out of these fruits people prepare deadly poison through various methods. A vegetable poison is generally called kála. The word kála is particularly used for the kalke flower.

Footnotes

(1) An epic poem of India. It is the story of King Rama, or Ramchandra. –Trans.

(2) Magpie robin of Bengal. –Trans.

(3) A fork-tailed bird. –Trans.

(4) The witty people ask: Is it for this reason that the Kayasthas are such experts in maintaining records and bookkeeping?

(5) The Kálacakrayána Tantra, the Hevajra Tantra and the Kauṋkálamálinii Tantra are a mixture of Shaeva [related to Shiva], Shákta [related to Shakti, i.e., Supreme Energy] and Buddhist Tantras.

(6) But Kalpánta means the end of the four ages. In other words, when at the end of the four ages – Satya, Tretá, Dvápara and Kali – again the turn comes for Satya Yuga, we call that time Kalpánta.

(7) The birikalái contains the qualities of all types of pulses. Moreover, it is the most nutritious of all the easily available [cheap] pulses.

(8) These days I see that Sanskrit words like rúpyakyaḿ, rúpyakáńi, etc., are used to mean táká, i.e., promissory note. Would it not have been proper to use the words, raúpyakaḿ, raoupyakáńi, etc?

(9) In the garden of the author there are ashoka trees bearing flowers of different colours.

(10) There are ágara trees in the garden of the author in Kolkata.

(11) Symplocos racemosa.–Trans.

(12) Vijaygupta is the writer – he was inhabitant of Fullashree near Gaila village of Bhakharganj District.

Chapter 4	Shabda Cayaniká Part 4

Káliká

Kála + ka + t́hak + t́áp = Káliká. The etymological meaning of the word káliká is “related to kála [time]”. In common usage it means the following:-

1. Kálashakti: The sensorial measurement of the motivity of action is called kála. If the motivity of this ucchúnyá [unexpressed state of] Prakrti were not there, time would have been flawed by non-existence. Again, in the absence of a measuring mind, the existential entity remains unrecognized. When there is movement, it must be understood that there are at least two entities, and there must be a change of place in at least one of them. Alternately, all existing multiple entities are continuously undergoing change of place. This displacement of one or many is effected by action. Change of place is relative. In an eternal state of equipoise, change of place is impossible. Similarly impossible is absolute pause or absolute speed. This movement, which is essentially relative, and on which the mind acts through sense perceptions, is certainly a dynamic force (calacchakti)⁽¹⁾. One name of this dynamic force is káliká or káliká shakti.

2. Whether inanimate or animate, creature or plant, human or non-human, everything has certain generic features and certain specific features. Each of these features can be called a quality. It should be remembered that even defects are qualities (a defect means a negative quality). In a so-called inanimate object, such as gold, for example, there are positive qualities [properties] and negative qualities (defects). The identity of gold and its attributes is characterized by the combination of these positive and negative qualities. A gold particle contains, carries and sustains these qualities. It is also the nature of these characteristics that decides with what it can be combined at the atomic stage, and the kinds of changes that would take place in its atomic structure. All these together constitute the goldenness of gold.

   Take yoghurt, for example. The introduction of a particular agent [acidic coagulator] like dadhyamla (dambal) brings about chemical changes in lukewarm milk and converts it to yoghurt. The atomic composition of lukewarm milk is not exactly like the atomic composition of ordinary milk. The change occasioned by the introduction of the coagulator (dambal) also involves a further transformation in its atomic composition. So the qualities of milk in these three different stages are not the same. Those who cannot digest ordinary milk may possibly digest lukewarm milk. Again, those who cannot digest lukewarm milk may perhaps digest yoghurt. Furthermore, those who cannot digest yoghurt may be able to digest buttermilk (ghol). This means that there are differences in quality in the same inanimate object, in different places and times or when it passes through a chemical process. The sámarasya [balance] is disturbed at this stage.

   Animate horses have particular qualities. Again, there are qualitative differences amongst different species of horses. The all-round development of the world is based on the states, structures, changes and modifications of all these qualitative differences. So no all-round progress is possible while ignoring any entity, irrespective of its molecular, atomic or electronic base. That is why any thought along sectarian lines is fundamentally incorrect. And this is the reason why I am compelled to say that the path of Neo Humanism⁽²⁾ is the only path of welfare … the only path of progress. And this is a path that is predetermined by the Supreme Shelter (prapattinivaddha) … there is no other second path.

   Human beings also have different branches and sub-branches. They also certainly have special structural characteristics. Human beings of the same subspecies have differences in their existential composition as well as in their existential awareness. So in the creation of the new world, everyone may have a role to play, but the roles are not, and cannot, be the same. It is not possible to lead human beings towards progress by putting them into one single mould and pulverizing their distinctive features with a steamroller. Putting all human beings in the cage of one single “commune” and forcing them to sing the glory of one single theory in one single tune can never liberate humanity.

   In the world of trees and plants, the distinctive features and diversities are more conspicuous. We must give them proper recognition before we move forward. Yes, each tree has certain special qualities of its own. Even in the same species and different subspecies there are differences with regard to quality, nutritional and medicinal values. In myrobalan (hariitakii) there are certain qualities. But in different species of myrobalan there are differences depending on whether it is gauŕii, or mágadhii or rohińii. Kandasháka or tuber crops have certain special qualities. But all tuberous plants do not have the same qualities. Ol [arum], mánkacu [a bigger variety of arum], khámálu [a big size tuber crop], mukhiikacu, kamalabhog kacu, pániikacu [three different varieties of arum], álu [potato], sutalii, sátálu, ráuṋgálu [sweet potato], ciinálu, sháṋkálu [a white edible, extremely sweet fruit] – all of these are tuberous. All have the generic qualities of bulbous or tuberous vegetables or kanda, but they have specific differences as well. The common attributes of all kandas belonging to the category of kacu are called káliká or kálikáshakti.

   We should always remember that the inherent properties or inherent qualities of all objects are spatial, temporal or indigenous manifestations of the one Paráshakti [Introversive Force].

3. Most of you know that sita or sveta [white] is not an original colour. White is not a particular colour; it is the collection of all colours. Where colour is absent, this is known as asita or ashveta [non-white] or krśńa [black]. Black is no colour; want of any colour is black. Black colour attracts more attention than any other colour. “What attracts” – it is in this sense that the colour black is called krśńa. The colour white attracts people least; so if black is placed next to white, both become very prominent. White and black are like two opposites – shade and light. People who are particularly fond of good dressing avoid the colour white because it is least attractive. That is why in India white clothes were prescribed for widows. If a particular object is of white colour, it will not attract your attention much. You will not fear it much either. But the colour black will attract your attention more … and it will frighten you more as well. You will fear a nonpoisonous black snake more and consider it more dangerous than a white snake. White is a positive symbol and black is a negative symbol. The all-black, terrible looking female form, be it a rakśasii [demoness], or goddess is called Káliká

4. According to certain scriptures the rhythmic positivity is called cańd́iká shakti (presiding as cańd́a or cańd́iká shakti in wrathful form). The rhythmic negativity of this cańd́iká shakti is called káliká shakti.

5. If numbers like 2, 3, 4, etc. are called cańd́iká shakti, then – 2, – 3, – 4, etc. are to be called káliká shakti.

6. The name of one particular school of philosophy of Maháyánii Buddhism is known as shúnyaváda. Everything comes out of nothing. Shúnyát ágacchati, shúnye tiśt́hati, shúnyaḿ adhigacchati [everything comes from nothing, remains in nothing, descends towards nothing] – this is the essence of shúnyaváda. According to some scholars, this shúnya does not mean exactly zero or cipher. Shúnya as if is a symbolic representation of the absence of all conceptions. Whatever the interpretation, according to the literal meaning shúnya is certainly zero. In order to counter this Maháyánii shúnyaváda and turn a negative philosophy into a positive one in the shortest possible manner, Sankaracharya used the word Brahma in place of shúnya. It was just a metamorphosis of philosophical negativity into philosophical positivity by replacing the term shúnya with Brahma. Sankaracharya himself also said:

   Yathá shúnyavádinaḿ shúnyaḿ Brahma Brahmavidaḿstathá.

   [As shúnya is to the exponents of the shúnya doctrine, so Brahma is to those who have known Brahma.]

   The theory inherent in this shúnyaváda is Naerátmadevii:

   Sońebharitii karuńa návii
   Rupá thoi nahika t́hávii.
   Báhátu kamali gaana ubesheṋ
   Gelii jám⁽³⁾ báhuŕai kaise.

   The above composition is in sandhyábháśá [mystic language]. The surface meaning is one and the internal meaning is another. The surface meaning is: The boat of compassion is already filled with gold. There is no room to keep silver in this boat. Thoi means thuibár or rákhbár, “to keep” – this verb is still prevalent in the countryside of Bengal). Oh Kamali [the name of the poet], you steer your boat towards the sky. Your previous life would not then be able to chase you and catch up with you.

   The inner meaning is: Your existence reduced to shúnya has merged in Naerátmadevii. So mundane objects have no place therein. Oh Kamali, so you follow the path of suśumná [the spiritual channel within the spinal column. You need not bear any longer the burden of the inborn saḿskáras of life. At one time (sometime after the reign of King Shashanka), this doctrine of shúnyaváda had a strong hold on the Maháyánii Buddhism of Bengal. But the Bengali psyche is completely opposed to nihilism because it can turn a person into a cynic, and it has been doing exactly that. So in the land of Bengal, there developed a new Maháyánii school, which was called atisukhaváda [the doctrine of excessive pleasure or hedonism] – which was the polar opposite of the Buddhist doctrine of sorrow⁽⁴⁾ [or complete pessimism]. However, it is this Naerátmadevii who is the Buddhist káliká shakti. Later when, under the influence of Sankaracharya the people of Bengal embraced the Puranic religion, they did not completely discard the Buddhist Káliká; rather, they retained it as one of the different forms of the mythological goddess, Kálii⁽⁵⁾. It is said that when the mind turns into shúnya, then in that state of completely vacant mind, Naerátmadevii⁽⁶⁾ or Káliká Shakti keeps on dancing.

   Shmashán bhálobásis bale shmashán karechi hrdi
   Shmasánbásinii shyámá nácbi bale niravadhi;
   Ár kono sádh nái má cite citer águn jvale cite,
   Citábhasma cári bhite rekhechi má ásis yadi.

   [Since you love the cremation ground, I have turned my heart into one, So that, O Shyámá, dweller of the cremation ground, you may always dance on it. I have no other desire, mother, the funeral pyre burns in my heart, I have kept ashes all around, if you, mother, ever chance to come.]

   Here the word shmashán, that is, cremation ground, is used allegorically. The allegory is used as a symbol of mental void or a vacant mind.

   Whatever the case may be, the point is that Káliká is the name of a Buddhist goddess.

7. According to hearsay, Mahákaola Shiva had three wives. One was the Aryan Gaorii, the second was the non-Aryan Káliká and the third was the paesháciikanyá Gauṋgá (Kubacaká or Mauṋgol).

8. Shántanu was a famous king in Indian history. He was famous as much for his valour as for his humanity and piety. An important source of these qualities was his wife Káliká. So Káliká is a historical woman.

9. The sky is called meghlá when all the luminaries of the sky are covered by clouds. This lá is a pure Bengali suffix. One meaning of the word káliká is meghlá [overcast with clouds].

10. Suppose the sky is quite clear. Then suddenly a black cloud appears from somewhere. Then slowly, one after another, more clouds come and form a garland of clouds, as it were. This garland of clouds formed by the floating and rhythmically dancing clouds is also called káliká.

11. Suppose there are a few clouds in the sky, but not very dark [black] – possibly white or maybe ashen. But then the colour of the clouds slowly begins to change into black and within a short time becomes ink-black. A cloud thus turned black is also called káliká.

12. Suppose you spot a cloud in the northeast corner of the sky. Then you see that more and more clouds are coming, resulting in a thick gathering of clouds. The farmers and sailors apprehend imminent heavy rains. The children leave their games and run back to their homes. And then begins the heavy downpour (muśaládháre⁽⁷⁾). The cloud that suddenly brings such a heavy downpour is also called káliká.

13. Suppose some ashen or clay-coloured clouds or clouds of other colours begin to gather in the sky. One has a feeling that there is a high wind blowing. After some time the storm breaks out. This particular kind of cloud that foreshadows the storm is also called káliká.

14. Many of you know the synonyms of kuyásá [fog] – kujjhat́iká, kuheliká, kuhelii, etc. But there is one particular kind of fog which is ink-dark, a kind of fog through which one cannot even properly see one’s own hands and feet. One name of this ink-dark fog is káliká. Sometimes you will see that densely thick smoke, while spiraling upwards, cannot move upwards on account of heaviness, and keeps on hovering slightly above the surface. This dense darkness caused by smoke is also called kuhelii. This kuhelii also smells like smoke.

15. When smoke mixes with fog and creates an uneasy and unhygienic atmosphere, then it is called “smog” (smoke and fog); in modern Bengali it has been named dhoṋyásá (dhoṋyá + kuyásá). For this dhoṋyásá we have a word from ancient times: káliká.

16. Shyámá is the name of a small bird [a songbird of the thrush family] that we find in Bengal as well as eastern India. Although this small bird is not very beautiful to look at, its voice is very attractive. The name of this bird is also káliká. Satyendranath Datta writes in one of his poems:

    Kotháy d́áke doyel-shyámá
    Phiuṋe gáche gáche náce re,
    Kotháy jale marál cale
    Marálii tár piche piche.

    [Where do you find that place where doyel, shyámá sing and fork-tailed birds dance on the branches of a tree? Where is that place where the swan swims, and the goose follows from behind?]

17. The melon is a very well known fruit in the world today. According to many, its place of origin is the Arab countries. But in today’s world, melons grow in sand-mixed earth, wherever there is water under the sand, provided the climate is sufficiently warm. Generally, in the northern hemisphere melon seeds are sown towards the end of December, and the fruits are available until the start of rainy season. The plant begins to yield fruit from the time it is just one month old. The fruits take two and half months to ripen. The outer skin of the melon is generally of three kinds: black, green and white. Melons of varied, striped colours have been produced in China since ancient times. Again, melons are of three different types, depending on the colour of its kernel: rosy, dark blue and yellow. In China, melons with yellow kernel are readily available. This melon with yellow kernel may not be very large in size, but it is very sweet. In India, the melons of Bhagalpur were most famous for their size. The melons of Goyalanda (the original name was Goyálá-nanda), Burdwan and Tarakeswar were also famous at one time. At present there is fairly good cultivation of the original Japanese melon in the regions of south Bengal close to the sea. Since this kind of melon grows well in the region near Gauṋgáságar [confluence of the Bay of Bengal] it has been named ságarashree. Thanks to this ságarashree, Bengal is now quite advanced in the melon cultivation. Melons with black or blackish skins are called káliká.

    In prehistoric times, the melon had a sister fruit. But in the course of time, it branched out in a different direction. As cauliflowers, cabbage, modern broccoli and lettuce are born out of the very ancient broccoli, similarly one branch of the original melon is known as tarmuj [melon] and the other branch is known as kheṋŕo. In many respects kheṋŕo is like a melon. It needs sandy soil and warmth. But while a melon is round shaped, a kheṋŕo is oblong. A melon can be eaten only when it is ripe; moreover, it is not cooked. A kheṋŕo can be eaten when it is green, but it must be cooked for eating, and it cannot be eaten when it is ripe. The central part of a melon is extremely rich in sugar, while in a kheṋŕo the sugar content is almost nil. In taste it is more like káṋkuŕ (what is called kaṋkuŕ when green is called phut́i when ripe) than like cucumber.

    A melon requires soft soil full of sand. For a kheṋŕo the soil need not be so soft, but it must be sandy. A favourite dish of the people of Ráŕh in spring and summer is this kheṋŕo. In chaste Bengali, a kheṋŕo is called khańd́iká. From the white of a ripe melon and from kheṋŕo one can make flour. This flour may not have much nutritional value, but it can help to some extent in filling the stomach of poor people. In areas like Bengal as well as India and other countries where there is an acute shortage of food, one should cultivate on a large scale plants such as melons, kheṋŕos, ground cucumber (kśiirikás or kśiirás) and plants of the káṋkuŕ family (phut́i or báuṋgi) in fallow, riparian lands. This will help immensely in solving the food problems of the world. It is also possible to extract large amounts of cooking oil from the seeds of melon and kheṋŕo. One can certainly extract oil from the seeds of cucumber and phut́i ; moreover it can be used as a supplement to groundnuts.

    The seeds of melon and phut́i (ripe káṋkuŕ) have similar properties. In chaste Bengali, a melon is called sphot́ona or sphot́aka, and phut́i is called sphut́iká. In the villages of Bengal, phut́i is also called báuṋgi in some places. The Bengali word kharmuj has come from the ancient Persian word kharmujá. In Urdu the word kharbujá is prevalent. A tarmuj is called watermelon in English, and a phut́i is called muskmelon.

18. I have already told you several times about dambal or coagulating agent. Yoghurt is formed due to a friendly virus in the sour yoghurt. When the virus comes in contact with lukewarm milk, it turns the milk into yoghurt by causing chemical changes. Some viruses are formidable enemies of human beings while others are their closest friends. This virus associated with yoghurt is a friend of human beings. A person who cannot digest milk can digest yoghurt. A sophisticated name for this dadhyamla or dambal (or joŕan in some places) is káliká.

19. When someone has started a business or constructed something by taking loans from a particular source, then that business or that construction project is called káliká. For example, suppose a person has no money – he takes a loan and starts a business. Then this business will be called káliká business. Suppose a country is passing through financial crisis, and it takes a loan from another country and constructs a dam. Then this dam will be called káliká dam or káliká river project. Economics tells us that in káliká business, one should never stop the circulation of money. For example a businessman should not use borrowed money to add rooms of his shop or to make showcases, because neither the room nor the showcase will allow the money grow. People should use loans to increase their inventory of business products. Using loans for non-yielding enterprises is not prudent. Instead of using foreign money to build a railway station, that money should be invested in laying new rail lines.

20. The business of usury or the organizations that lend money with interest, or banks, are called káliká in good Bengali.

21. To lend or borrow a particular sum of money for a particular period is also called káliká.

22. Good Bengali for the word “lease” or ijárá (the word “lease” is also a foreign word) is káliká.

23. In the Puranas [Indian mythology] there are many kinds of stories. The principal aim of Vyásadeva, the pioneer in telling mythological stories, was to impart good education through these stories. Sometimes it happens that people lose sight of the moral of a story, become more interested in the story itself, and mistake it as truth. Vyásadeva realized this later, and on realization, said:

    Rupaḿ rupavivarjitasyabhavato yaddhyánena kalpitam,
    Stutyá’anirvacaniyatá’akhiloguro duriikrtá yanmayá.
    Vyápitvaiṋcanirákrtaḿ bhagavato yattiirthayátrádiná,
    Kśantavyaḿ jagadiishotadvikalatádośatrayaḿ matkrtam.

    “Oh Lord, you are beyond form. Even then I have described Your form in meditation. This is my first fault. You are beyond attributes. Yet I have tried to describe Your attributes in my hymns and obeisance. This is my second fault. You are beyond space and a universal entity. Yet I have confined You to space by propagating the greatness of the earthly places of pilgrimages. This is my third fault. O Lord, please forgive me and absolve me of these three faults arising out of my mental deformity.”

    According to Puranic mythology, there are two kinds of female singers in heaven. One is known as Káliká and the other is known as Gaoriká. A Káliká entertains people by catering to their individual tastes through her singing (requested songs, film songs, pop songs, favourite songs, etc.). But the Gaorikás do not allow such levity – such vulgar songs. Instead of singing songs on demand, they sing those songs that can engender the complete welfare of human beings and their all-round development. Those singers of the heavenly world who sing on public demand songs that are based on Puranic myth are called Káliká. You should not use the word gáyiká.

24. The blackness of the colour black is also called káliká.

25. To mean that something is not exactly black but has the suggestion of blackness [blackish], we use the suffix ce in Bengali and form the word kálce. In exactly the same way we get the word lálce [reddish]. The suffix ce is added to words ending in a fixed consonant; otherwise one has to use the suffix te. For example, in order to signify yellowish, we cannot say haldece, we say haldet́e. The word káliká is also used to mean kálce.

26. In order to make a gold ornament, it is necessary to mix some alloy gold. In ornaments made of guinea gold, there is a mixture of alloy. So when guinea gold is melted, it degenerates into dead gold [pure gold]. Although it is possible to make bejeweled ornaments with pure gold, it is not possible to make any good ornament with pure gold alone. This alloy used in gold is also called káliká.

27. In the age of the dominance of Maháyánii Buddhist Tantra, and later also during the dominance of Vámácárii Hindu Tantra, those who used to go to the funeral ground for the worship of Káliká Shakti, also used to drink a type of very strong wine in orderto combat fear. That particular intoxicant which theydrank or used in the worship of káliká was also called káliká.

28. Something that is short-lived and does not last long is also called káliká. The word káliká is an adjective, so the form will change according to the gender of the noun it qualifies. For example, for a temporary clerk we will say káliká karańik, while for a temporary nurse we will say káliká sevaká. The same rule will apply to mean “part-time”, that is, “part-time clerk” when translated into Bengali will be aḿshakálika or khańd́akálika karańika; for “part-time dancing girl” we will say aḿshakáliká or khańd́akáliká narttakii.

29. The word káliká will also take on the gender of some thing which appears in a particular season. In this case, the gender of the word káliká will change according to the gender of the noun. For example, for a fruit which is available in the summer season we will say káliká phal (kálikaḿ phalaḿ). For a winter creeper we will say the káliká latá⁽⁸⁾ [káliká creeper] of winter (latá, late, latáh); for the autumn sun we will say kálikah súryah (declined like the noun nara).

30. If we have to talk about the unseen presence of a particular season, the gender of káliká will change according to the gender of the noun it qualifies. For example, when referring to the [unseen] breeze of spring, we can say vasanter kálik háoyá. Alternately, we can also say vasanter káliká háoyá, because the breeze is more of a non-visual entity than visual. Take the formation of an adjective in the case of water. If it can be seen, then we use the word ́aquatic’ (such as “an aquatic plant”); but when we cannot see it, then we use the adjective ́aqueous’ (such as “an aqueous product”). It is akin to the adjective for ocean. If it can be seen, then ́marine’(such as “marine department”) is used, but if we cannot see it then, ́maritime’; (such as “maritime climate”) will be used.

31. All medicinal plants and herbs are called káliká.

32. Any climber is called káliká. You know, there is a kind of plant that cannot stand on its own – it bends, totters and tumbles. But, it does not climb up any large tree. In English we call it a creeper; in Bengali, latá: hásnáháná [night jasmine], belphul [two varieties of mográ], kuṋdphul [Jasimin creeper], for example. Again, there are certain plants which become entwined with other plants as they move, such as kumŕo [pumkin], láu [bottle gourd], tarulatá, mádhaviilatá [a kind of climber creeper], etc. In English they are called climbers – in Sanskrit bratatii, ballarii, etc. Another name of this bratatii or ballarii is káliká. The word ballarii is of Vedic origin. The word was widely used in the ancient Turkish language.

33. Some of you have possibly seen that there is a creeping leafy vegetable plant called puiṋ shák [Indian spinach] … slightly wild, and its leaves are small and blackish. This kind of puiṋ is called buno puiṋ [wild variety]. Although its nutritional value is as good as that of any other puiṋ, it is not good for patients suffering from acidity. Although all kinds of puiṋ have more or less the same qualities, it is the white puiṋ or puiṋ with light green large leaves that is relatively easy to digest. The wild puiṋ is bad for acidity, as the red puiṋ is bad for the mind. Experts have declared the red puiṋ as inedible. Although the wild puiṋ has not been declared inedible, gastric patients should not eat it. The good name of this wild puiṋ is káliká.

    The seed of red puiṋ is used in dyeing since ancient times. This kind of dyeing is called kálántaraiṋjana in Sanskrit. Kálántaraiṋjana means “to dye” in kálánta varńa, and kálánta varńa means “blue-black colour”.

34. Many of you know that cucumber is one of the oldest contributions of the created world. Cucumber appeared in the world long before human beings were born. This fruit grows in different countries and in different climates. Everywhere it is popular. Although the English word “cucumber” is of apparent Anglo-Saxon origin, it is actually a Breton word. Despite the fact that some languages of the English family use it, the word is actually is of Brittany origin.

    I have already said that cucumbers are of two kinds. One grows in the rainy season on a scaffold raised above the plant, the Sanskrit for which is shashakaphalam (shashaka>shashaa>shashá). The fruit was so named because it was a favourite of the shashaka [the hare]. The second variety grows in winter and spring and is known as met́ho shashá [ground cucumber] or kśiiriká or kśiirá (kśiiriká > kśiriá > kśiirá/kśiiri > kśiirei). Both varieties have medicinal and hygienic values. They are good for the kidney and the liver. But excessive eating of anything is bad. Cucumber should be eaten in the morning hours ... subáh kśiirá hiirá; dopaharme kśiirá kśiirá, sandhyáme kśiirá piiŕá [In the morning a cucumber has the best effect; at noon it has a neutral effect, and in the evening it causes ailments]. The ground cucumber is a little larger in size, and when ripe its colour becomes slightly reddish yellow. The ground cucumber is less juicy – and it tastes better when cooked rather than when green [and uncooked]. The skinned seeds of ripe cucumber can be used as a substitute for groundnuts and its oil can be used for cooking

    Apart from the seasonal cucumbers that are available in the rainy season, winter and spring, there is another variety which is available the year round. The cucumber available in the rainy season is greenish, small and very juicy, and as fruit it goes very well with muŕi [puffed rice]. Cucumbers vary widely in size, shape and colour in different countries and in different seasons.

    Cucumbers [fruit] do not grow, or at the most grow very rarely, on the main creeper. They come on the branches and sub-branches. These branches and sub-branches of the cucumber plant are called káliká.

35. If a cucumber plant that grows in the rainy season is allowed to grow on the land, then it bears fruit, no doubt, but because of contact with the earth, the fruit either becomes rotten or is eaten by insects. So the plant should be lifted up onto a scaffold. The word normally used in Sanskrit and Bengali for any kind of platform or scaffold is maiṋca. But the special nomenclature used for the cucumber mácán [scaffold] is káliká. You can freely use the word in Bengali.

36. You might have noticed that some people have curly or wavy hair from childhood, that is, since birth. They did not need to use any artificial means for this. This kind of hair that is naturally curly or wavy is called káliká. But remember, the word is feminine.

37. There are people whose hair is not curly⁽⁹⁾ or wavy since childhood or since birth. Such hair artificially made curly or wavy is also called káliká. The manually attached hairpiece with designs made by women to put in their hair with the help of clips, oil, various glues, etc. is also called káliká. But it should be remembered that the word káliká used for hair which is artificially curled or dressed, and for which artificial steps are taken, is not feminine but neuter gender – kalikaḿ (kálikaḿ – kálike – kálikáni).

38. The feminine of kák [crow] is kákii. Again, the feminine of káká [uncle] is also kákii. But it should be borne in mind that the word kákii, meaning a female crow, is a Sanskrit word used in Bengali. But kákii as the feminine of káká [uncle] is a foreign word; it is Persian. However, in Bengali one is not likely to confuse the two kákiis, because in Bengali a woman is addressed as mother. That is why in cultured language, kákii is addressed not as kákii but as kákii má [má means “mother”]. However, neither kákii nor cácii is a Bengali word. Káká and kákii are Persian, while cácá and cácii are of Hindustani origin. Bengal’s own words derived from Sanskrit are khuŕá/khuŕii (derived from khullatáta). The word kákii, which is the feminine of kák [crow] is also called káliká.

39. The káli [ink] that we use for writing, for which there is the Sanskrit synonym masii, is also called káliká. In ancient times the orthodox Vaeśńavas would never use the word káli or káliká because they considered the word as belonging to the Shákta register [worshipper of Shakti or the operative principle of creation]. The Sháktas sacrifice goats … they slaughter goats. So Vaeśńavas did not use the word kát́á [cutting, slaughtering]. In other words, they avoided using words associated with the rites and rituals of Sháktas. Sháktas use jabá phul [a red species of China rose – Hibiscus rosa sinensis]; so Vaeśńavas would call it oŕphul. The Sháktas take the jhol [broth] of meat; so Vaeśńavas would avoid the word jhol and say rasá instead. The Sháktas perform animal sacrifices [literally they cut the animals]. So the Vaeśńavas would not use the expression tarkári kát́á [cutting the vegetables]; they would use the word bánáno [making]. They would not call the ink káli but siháii. Even today the Vaeśńavas in the villages of the Ráŕh follow this practice. This custom is prevalent in Assam also. In Assamese language the word siháii is also prevalent. In the languages of Bihar, the writing ink is also called siháii; in Urdu it is called raoshnáii.

40. You are generally familiar with white sandalwood and red sandalwood. Actually the red sandalwood is no sandal at all; it is a tall wild tree with fragrant red wood. It was incorporated into the category of sandalwood in the post-Buddhist period. In botany it is not regarded as sandalwood. Later its use grew among the worshippers of the sun and the worshippers of Shakti, and even today the Saoras [sun worshippers] and the Sháktas use this red sandal when worshiping the goddess Kálii. If any Vaeśńava happens to use this red sandal, he would encircle the mark with white sandal or the kind of earth they call the holy clay of Vraja (tilaka mát́i). In Bengal, however, red sandalwood is still used in the worship of Kálii and the sun, just as the jabá [the red China rose] is used. Sandal actually means white sandal. There are primarily two varieties⁽¹⁰⁾ of white sandal in the world – one is the Indonesian variety, which is celebrated in Sanskrit as the javadviipiiyas prajáti [Java island sandal], and the other is Sri Lankan. Indian white sandal belongs to the Sri Lankan variety. When Mysore was under the rule of the ancient royal family, sandalwood was regarded as the national tree, and felling a sandalwood tree without royal permission was strictly prohibited.

    Another variety of sandalwood with blackish wood is available in very limited quantity in the world. Since its colour is black, people do not use it as a mark on the body, despite the fact that it has a very sweet smell. So there is greater demand for this oil. This black-coloured sandal is called káliká.

Ká means “vulgar or harsh sound”. Etymologically kárava refers to one who makes this kind of vulgar noise or harsh sound. In common usage kárava means a jackdaw or a rook. Another meaning of the word kárava, which is very rarely used, is bhutumpyáṋcá [one of the largest and ugliest species of owl]. The feminine of kárava is káravii, which means a female jackdaw.

Káliuṋga

Kaliḿ + gam + d́a = kaliuṋga. The etymological meaning of kali is something which is sound-predominant or action-predominant or something worth rejecting – barjya. The word barjya reminds me of an old story.

When the Aryans came to India they first established a colony in Haritdhánya [Hariyana] after the saptasindhu [Punjab] and then at Prayága [Allahabad] – in the eastern ends of Brahmávarta as well as in Brahmarśidesh (which later became the kingdoms of Shúrasena and Shakasena). Then they moved forward along the western bank of the Ganges right up to the River Gańd́akii, and then right up to the River Sone along its northern bank. Magadh was famous for its valour during that period. So it was not possible for the Aryans to cross the Sone and enter Magadh. Moreover in Mithila also, the people of Maethilii-Gaoŕián nature [influenced by Tantra] were inimical to Aryan ideology. So the Aryans did not consider it feasible to enter. Later, of course, they established a colony in Mithila, and the king Mithi made the place congenial to colonial occupation by performing the trihotriya yajiṋa [a special Vedic ceremony].

Even after this invasion the Aryans could not enter Magadh for a long time. Since they failed to make inroads into Magadh, they named the place as Magadh in the pejorative sense that it was a place inhabited by magas or people who were opposed to the Vedas and its rites and rituals. It was long afterwards that the Aryans came to Bengal. In Bengal at first they faced invincible resistance on the border of Ráŕh. Unable to enter Ráŕh, they perhaps contemptuously named the place as Varjyabhúmi. According to some, the word Biirbhumi/Biirbhum has come from the word Varjyabhúmi. The word kali is also used to mean varjya.

The phoneme m is not a verbal or non-verbal end-phoneme. It is the m-phoneme of the singular accusative case. Since it is not the verbal ending m or n, the word kaliuṋga must be written with uṋga and not with ḿ [not kaliḿga], as Gauṋgá must be spelt with uṋga and not with ḿ [gauṋgá and not gaḿgá]. In common usage, Kaliuṋga means the southern part of present Orissa and part of the northern coastline of Andhra. Generally speaking, it covers the Odŕa land and the Ut́kala land, but is not exactly the whole of Ut́kala and Odra [in Orissa].

We obtain the word káliuṋga by adding the suffix ań to kaliuṋga, the etymological meaning of which is related to kaliuṋga. In common usage káliuṋga means the following:

1. A middle-sized elephant of the Indian variety. Indian elephants are generally of two kinds – very large and medium-sized. The large elephants are rather tall in height, though not as tall as the African elephant, but they are quite intelligent. The African elephant cannot be easily domesticated, but an Indian elephant is amenable to domestication. Once upon a time there were plenty of medium-sized Indian elephants, but now they are almost extinct. In the southern part of Assam and in Tripura there were ample medium-sized elephants even during the Mughal period. It is said that during the Mughal and Pathan periods, whenever there were battles between the king of Tripura and the nawabs and emperors, the king of Tripura used to present a few such medium-sized elephants to the nawabs and emperors as terms of the truce. At present we seldom come across these medium-sized elephants in other parts of India. The complexion of these elephants is paler than the complexion of large elephants – somewhat ashen coloured, in fact. One name of this medium-sized Indian elephant is káliuṋga. Any elephant cub can also be called káliuṋga.

2. Ajagar snake has several species. In colloquial Bengali, we call it mayál sáp in the general sense; in English, python. This ajagar has many subspecies. Ajagar with a mixed black and white complexion is also known as káliuṋga.

3. India invented and began to use steel a long time ago. At that time, steel was not manufactured by the process followed today. There were neither huge steel plants like those of today nor were there big smithies. The steel was made through an indigenous process. Many of the Ashoka pillars are made from this steel, and they have remained intact for as long as two thousand years. The pillar of Prthviraj near Kutubminar (Delhi) is also made of the steel from that period. There was a time when it was not even possible to move this pillar. People say that in later times, a foreign invader was able to move it. As a result, the pillar became slightly loose. As the pillar became loose, people of the time changed the name of Indraprastha to D́heilii [leaning or slanting or loose] from which is derived the word “Delhi”. Whatever may be the formula for producing this Indian steel, it is also called káliuṋga. You can also freely use the word káliuṋga in this sense in Bengali.

4. You have noticed that from the end of winter until summer, a variety of bottle gourd that is longish in shape grows in the fields. The gourmets claim that delicious ráitá can be made with this gourd when mixed with yoghurt. One can make delicious fried chops also by smearing it with powdered rice or powdered pulse. You must have seen such small, pitcher-shaped gourds. These are very good for making a dish of minced and spiced vegetables, cooked almost dry, and a sweet dish prepared by boiling bottle gourd pieces in milk with sugar and other ingredients. You also must have seen round gourds. This round gourd is very good for a dish of vegetables cooked in a little oil, and also a type of preparation having several vegetables including bitter gourd. Many of you must have eaten such dishes made of round gourd. You must have seen club gourd also. If this club gourd is turned into paste after boiling, made into balls and then put into broth, the balls become very tasty.

   Well, let us come to the point. This longish gourd or the ground gourd that is available in large quantity in the months of Caetra [last month of Bengali Calendar], Vaeshákh [first month of the same] and Jaeśt́ha [second month of the same], which is referred to as vaeshákhá gourd by some people, is also called káliuṋga.

5. Another meaning of the word káliuṋga is a variety of cucumber that grows on a scaffold, is small in size, is predominantly of green colour and curved in shape. When you use the word káliuṋga to mean this particular kind of cucumber, you should use it in its feminine form – then the word will be káliuṋgii (the declension will be like the word nadii).

6. Káliuṋga means any kind of melon. Botanists say that the melon had its origin in Arabia and the Middle East, but its production and use in India can be traced back to very ancient times. Right from the Rgvedic era, Aryans and Dravidians were familiar with melons. Moreover in the Vedic language, there are many references to melon. In contrast, the use of sphot́ana or sphot́aka (kharmuj or kharbujá) and sphut́iká (phut́i or báuṋgi) is far less. Perhaps because these is because these (sphot́ana or sphot́aka or phut́iká) grow primarily in eastern India, and the Aryans came in contact with them much later, there is practically no reference to it in Vedic literature.

Well, although a bit irrelevant, let me tell you that many scholars used to say by mistake that the word rájagira [in Magadh, Bihar] has come from the word rájagrha. I have said earlier and say now that in the Mágadhii language, the word derived from grha is ghar. Had the original word been rájagrha, then today in the Mágadhii language its form would have been rájaghara (rájagrha > rájagarha > rájaghara-a > rájaghara). However, that is not the case; in the present Magahii language, the word is rájagira, and this means that the original word must have indisputably been rájagiri, that is, royal mountain. This place [rájagira] was at one time the capital of Magadh. Perhaps this accounts for the name rájagiri, and not because it is a high mountain, for there are many higher mountains in the realm of Magadh. Similarly we get mudgagiri>muuṋgagiri> muuṋgira>muuṋger [another place in Bihar]. Furthermore, rájagira cannot be spelt with gii but with gi, because in the spelling of giri we have only i. The mudgara/mudga mean both mudgara [club] and muga pulse [green gram]. Mudgadvidala > muṋgadiala > muṋgadála > mugdála.

Footnotes

(1) Calat + shakti= calacchakti. When there is sha after t, they combine into ccha. For example, Shriimat + shauṋkara = Shreemacchauṋkara. Mrt + shakat́ika = mrcchakat́ika (the impression of a moving carriage on a rural road).

(2) “... when the underlying spirit of humanism is extended to everything, animate and inanimate, in this universe – I have designated this as Neohumanism”. Liberation of Intellect: Neo-Humanism by Shrii Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar. –Trans.

(3) Janma > jamma > jám: geli jám means “previous life”.

(4) i) Sorrow, ii) cause of sorrow, iii) removal of sorrow, iv) ways of the removal of sorrow – these four are, according to Buddha, the cardinal truths – caturájjasaccam.

(5) The peak of the crest of Chańd́amátrikatá [rhythmicity] is known as Dakśińá Káliká, and the nadir of the trough is Bámá Káliká.

(6) Ek so padumá caośat́t́iipákhuŕii
Teṋmadhye nácanti domnii bápuŕi.

[There is a sixty-petal lotus, on it dances a female undertaker.]

(7) In Bengali it is wrongly used as muśaldháre instead of muśaladháre.

(8) Káliká is masculine as is phal. Káliká is feminine as is latá. -Trans.

(9) In our childhood we noticed that the boys and girls of the then Kolkata used to artificially curl their hair by putting a heated iron rod on their hair. The hair that grew afterwards was naturally curly.

(10) Both varieties of sandal are available in the author’s garden in Kolkata.

Chapter 5	Shabda Cayaniká Part 4

Kálii

Last Sunday I told you a few words about káliká. You must have understood that although the two words, káliká and kálii, are closely related, they are not exactly identical (hubahu)⁽¹⁾. The word kálii is formed by adding the suffix uṋgiic to the stem kála; we get the word káli by using the suffixes i and in. In most cases both the spellings, káli and kálii are correct. But the spelling with ii is not acceptable if the word forms the first part of a compound word. The rule applies to the adding of i or ii when a word ends with the phoneme la: ábalii-ábali, tálii-táli, karálii-karáli, kalii-kali, tamálii-tamáli, sthálii-stháli, shálmalii-shálmali, nálii- náli-ńálii-ńáli, etc. So while Káliidása is incorrect, Cańd́iidása is correct. The rule is applicable only to the end lra. Cańd́iidása, Deviidása do not have the end lra. You must have heard that the verbal root kala means to sound, to measure, to count, etc. That is the etymological meaning of kála. The feminine of the word is kálii. Although feminine, the meaning is the same. In common usage, by kálii/káli we understand the following:

1. Kálashakti: Although both káliká and kálii mean kálashakti, they do not have the same connotation. Káliká refers to the vibrational force by which kála is measured. But káli means the entity that measures kála. It was in this sense that the word káli was used in Buddhist Tantra, and the kálacakrayánii and Maháyánii schools used to worship Káli in the Bhaeravii Cakra. Later this kálacakrayána got lost in the wave of vajrayána [another Buddhist Tantra]. Even the last vestige of kálacakrayána disappeared under the pressure of vajrayána from the soil of Bengal some 1,100 years ago.

2. Another meaning of the word káli is the negative form of Cańd́ikáshakti. According to Puranic legend when Cańd́ii was asked to disclose her identity, even before she could answer, an ink-black entity emanated from her body and said, “I am not Cańd́ii”. Then Cańd́iká asked her, “Who are you?” She replied, “I am Káliká … I am Kaoveri.⁽²⁾ I am your negative self.”

   So, Káli means a special state of Cańd́ii.

3. Tárá (vajratárá, ugratárá, niilatárá, tathaevaca/tárá-tárińii-bhrámariitárá iti sá ucyate), originally a Buddhist goddess, was later incorporated into the Puranic religion, but the case of Káli is not exactly the same. Káli is certainly a Buddhist Naerátmadevii [nihilistic goddess]. But Káliká Tantra originated during the period when the ancient Shaeva school was predominant, as was the case during the rise of Jainism. For this reason, the Jains recognized Jaina-Shiva (Jyotirliuṋga) and accepted Párvatii as ádyáshakti or ambikáshakti or the collective form of sixty-four yoginiis; similarly, in Buddhism also Shiva has been accepted as Mahá Buddha. In the same way, Shiva’s earthly wife Kálii was considered an acoustic form of Naerátmadevii. As a result, Kálii not only acquired status in Buddhist religion, in Puranic Tantra also she was somewhat more firmly established than Tárá. Darjjeliḿ, the traditional Buddhist name of Darjeeling, became Durjaya Liuṋga in the Puranic language.

   For all the different meanings in which the word káli is used above, both i and ii are acceptable. But in the case where it is the first part of a compound word, ii is a must.

4. One meaning of the word káli is soot, that is, bhuśo [obtained from the smoke of wood, coal, oil, etc]. In this case the word káli must be spelt with i, without exception.

5. You must know that there is always soot (jhul) in the kitchens of housewives who pay scant attention to cleanliness. This soot is only a kind of bhuśo. Three things together make this jhul: water particles in the atmosphere, dust particles in the air and bhuśo. The bhuśo that hangs or keeps on hanging is called jhul [literally “something that is hanging”]. This kind of soot is also called káli. In this case also, the spelling will be káli [and not kálii].

6. Kájala (kajjvala): The word kajjvala is formed by adding the suffix jvala to kat, which etymologically means “something that shines in an ugly manner”. So one has to use va [with jj]. T of kat is converted into ja; so there must be two ja. And kad + jal = kajjal means swollen or expanded water, that is, cloud. In its spelling there will be two j-s but no va. So now you understand the difference between kajjvala and kajjala. However, this kajjvala or kájala is soot mixed with oil. This kájala is also called káli. It can be spelt only with li.

7. Well, can you tell me whether the people of India used to wear shoes in ancient times? Yes, it is true, human beings did not know how to wear shoes in pre-historic times when civilization was in its infancy, but they started using shoes when civilization had passed the first few stages. The Vipras [intellectuals] and the Vaishyas [business class] used wooden clogs with wooden balls attached. The Shúdras were not allowed to use shoes. The Kśatriyas wore leather sandals. In those days there was no arrangement for tanning. They used to rub the leather with the resin of gáb [kendu, mangosteen variety] and dry it in the sun. Then it was seasoned in lukewarm water for a lengthy period. When this process was repeated several times, the leather no longer remained a raw hide, and the stench was also removed to some extent. It is with this leather that nágrás [a kind of loose shoe or slipper] used by Kśatriyas were made. Formerly the Kayasthas of Bengal used to wear this nágrá at the time of marriage, perhaps in continuation of ancient tradition. However, the practice is no longer in vogue.

   The use of shoes brought in its wake the use of blackening [to polish.] the shoes. In spelling káli [black] used for polishing the shoes, both i and ii are acceptable. True, it is generally spelt with i, but it will not be wrong if you use ii. However, if the word is kalii, then the first part of a compound word must be written as káli with i.

8. Another meaning of the word káli is masii. The word masii is derived from the verbal root mas. The word káli is derived from the verbal root kála. As writing ink, that is, as masii, the word káli is widely used. Here also, although both i and ii are correct, the practice of writing it with i is more prevalent. But it will not be wrong to use ii. Perhaps in order to distinguish the goddess Kálii from all other uses of the word, they used i, although in most cases it would not have been wrong to use ii. In Sanskrit there is also limited use of the word kajjvala in the sense of writing ink – Asitagirisamaḿ syát kajjvalaḿ sindhupátre … . [If the Himalayas is considered an ink tablet and the ocean is the inkpot …]

9. Another meaning of the word káli is defective conduct or menial jobs. In this case also, both i and ii will go with la. But in Sanskrit, the custom of using i is very old – Eta pralobhaner madhye thekeo tár caritre káli lágeni [“Even in the midst of so many temptations, his character remained untarnished”.]

10. Of the seven flames of fire, one flame is called kálii. The real nature and the real form of a flame are determined by the speed of the wind and the percentage of unburnt carbon particles in the flame. Varied opinions notwithstanding, the seven flames of fire recognized during the Buddhist period of the scientist Nagarjuna are: i) kálii, ii) karálii, iii) lelihána, iv) lolojihvá, v) sarvalaktá, vi) kharpará, and vii) masiikrśńá.

11. One meaning of the word káli is night.

12. You know that the people of India have been familiar with coal for a long time. The Sanskrit word for coal is auṋgára, which in colloquial Bengali is áuṋgára or áuṋgrá. Charcoal was called káśt́háuṋgára, and the firewood (burning wood or dry wood) was called auṋgára-káśt́ha. In the Ráŕh region there are many villages with similar names, like Áuṋgáradihi, Áuṋgárahát́i, Áuṋgárasole, because the inhabitants of the Ráŕh region have been familiar with coal since ancient times. The people in those days did not know an effective method for digging up coal from a coal mine where deposits lay far below the earth’s surface. They used to dig up the earth, scoop out the coal and use it for burning, cooking and metallic crafts. At one time there were a number of open pits in Burdwan, Manbhum (Purulia and Dhanbad) and Hazaribag regions. In an open pit, the layers of coal sometimes rise and move towards the uppermost layer of the earth. So it was from open pits that coal used to be collected since very ancient times.

    The Bengali word kaylá has come from the word koilo (note the phonetic affinity of the Bengali kaylá or koilo with the English word “coal”) of Málavii Prákrta as well as ancient Gujarati languages. The introduction of the scientific method of lifting coal in Raniganj of Burdwan district ushered a new era in the coal industry. The contribution of “Kar-Thakur Company⁽³⁾” in this respect can never be forgotten.

    Although there was no scientific method to determine the quality [of coal], and although there was little acquaintance with the byproducts of coal tar and pitch, still people had some familiarity with coal tar and pitch. It means they had not yet invented saccharine or other coal-tar derivatives. No one inspired them in that direction. However, there was a sound infrastructure. They had a general idea regarding the location of available coal mines. They knew that there was a huge deposit of coal in the Damodar River bed. So they named the river Dámodara (dáma + udara). Dáma means “fire”. [and udara means “stomach”]. The river that has fire in its stomach is [literally] damodara. The Damodar basin had potentially the largest coal deposits. Today most of it is gone. Perhaps after some time there will be no coal in the upper layers of the coal mines. In order to collect coal, one will have to go deep down. Perhaps the venture may not be cost-effective then. Once a substitute for coal as fuel is invented, the mines will be abandoned. Instead we will have a huge lake stretching from Bhurkunda to Mejia. From the western side, the Damodar will flow into that lake, and then, leaving the lake, the river will run towards Durgapur. As the used mines are not properly filled with sand, the mines will collapse and these kinds of lakes will be created. The catastrophe that has befallen Jharia will befall the entire vast expanse of the Damodar basin.

13. The tar made from coal is called káli. In this case the spelling will always be with i.

14. Pitch or similar derivatives produced from coal are called kálii. In this case the spelling will always be with ii.

15. Sometimes you have seen clouds which are unusually dark. Such an excessively dark cloud, which frightens animals and children, is called káli.

16. I have said it earlier, and even then I say it again – the small bird which is known as shyámá in Bengal is also called káli or kálipakśii.

17. The melon having a very black skin is also called káli. You do not have to say káli-melon; just káli will suffice. At one time there was a huge production of the káli variety of melon in the Damodar basin from Amta to Tarakeshvar. I have no idea whether this melon is still available.

18. Like káliká or kálii one meaning of káli is coagulator.

19. Many of you must have eaten the scrapings of kaŕá-cáṋci [calcinated or condensed milk or milk products cooked in a cauldron, which tastes delicious] either by asking from your aunties in your childhood, or publicly, or in private as adults. This is also called káli.

Kályá

The word kályá refers to the female calf that has come of age and is in a position to give milk. When buying a cow, people generally select a cow with a calf or a cow that is ready to be milked. Normally people do not buy a female calf. You can freely use the word kályá in Bengali. Milk-yielding cows are generally divided into three categories – kályá, dhenu and sandhinii. One does not milk a cow in India for some time after it has given birth to a calf. A cow in that stage is called sandhinii. The reason behind this prohibition is to enable the newly born calf to have the entire milk for its development. So it was said, má pivet sandhinii dugdham [“One must not drink the milk of a cow that has just given birth to a calf.”]

Káshi/Káshii

The verbal root kásh means “to shine, to scintillate”, and the verbal root kás means “to make a nasty noise” (like kásá or bellmetal). In its etymological sense, káshii means “something that is shining”. In common usage Káshii [Varanasi] is a very old city situated on the bank of the Ganges. You can spell the word with both an i and ii [Káshi and Káshii], although generally it is spelt as Káshii. You must use sh in ákásha [sky], prakásha [manifestation], vikásha [development], etc. To write vikása would mean “one who is coughing badly”.

Káśt́ha/Káśt́há

I told you a little while ago that the verbal root kásh means to shine, to scintillate, and the verbal root kás means to make a nasty noise (to make different coughing sounds like khak-khak, khak-khak, khuk-khuk, khuk-khuk, khok-khok, khok-khok). By adding the suffix than (according to another opinion, kthan) we get the word káśt́ha, whose etymological meaning is “that which shines or scintillates”. Kásh + kth + na should become káshtha. But sha is a palatal consonant, while tha is dental; hence the two cannot be combined. Sha can be combined with the palatal cha. Now if for the sake of a combination [cluster] we write sa in place of sha, then the word will become kástha, which means an asthmatic patient. So you cannot use sa. It is safer to use the word káśa. But śa is retroflex and therefore cannot be combined with the dental tha. In this case, therefore, śa has been clustered with the second retroflex letter, t́ha. The spelling has thus become káśt́ha.

In common usage the word káśt́ha means “wood”. Káśt́ha > kát́t́ha > kát́h/kát́. According to the science of phonetics the spelling can be both kát́h and kát́. But since the usual practice in Bengali is to spell the word as káth, we should allow it remain as such. In feminine, however, the word káśt́há has several meanings in common usage:

1. We divide this earth of ours into the eastern hemisphere and western hemisphere on the basis of the temporal dimension of the sunrise and the sunset. Again owing to the angular changes [of the earth] during different seasons, sunlight does not fall equally on the northern and southern parts of the earth. Sometimes the sun is hotter in the Tropic of Cancer, and sometimes in the Tropic of Capricorn. So the northern and southern hemispheres of the earth are divided according to the predominance of heat or cold. In this manner we have four parts of the earth: i) the northern part of the eastern hemisphere, ii) the southern part of the eastern hemisphere, iii) the northern part of the western hemisphere, and iv) the southern part of the western hemisphere. Each of these four parts of the earth is called a káśt́há.

2. a. The verbal root kásh means something that shines or glitters or is luminous. So by adding the suffix u to the verbal root vas, we get the word vasu. The soul resides in the eight elements, using them as its base: five prapaiṋca or paiṋcabhuta [five fundamental factors], cittatatattva [ectoplasm], ahaḿtattva [the doer ́I’], and mahattattva [the pure ́I’]. So these eight elements are called aśt́avasu. Káśt́há also means aśt́avasu.

   b. Those who have the title Vasu should spell it as Vasu and not as Basu, Vinode Vasu and not Binod Basu, for example.

3. When drawing a line to separate one area from another, the line should be drawn conspicuously. One must do it by erecting a fence, building a wall, digging a hole, constructing an embankment or digging a ditch. In special cases, káśt́há also means a ditch (pagár). You must have used the expression, Se pagár pár haye geche. [He has crossed the ditch.] In a broad sense, káśt́há means borderline or frontier.

4. If the totality of an object comprises sixteen kalá or sixteen parts, then the thirteenth part of each of these [sixteen] parts will be called one káśt́há. For example, in ancient times people believed that on the first day of the moon they see only one kalá [1/16 of the whole moon]. On the second day they see two kalás [2/16] of the moon. On the thirteenth day they see thirteen kalás [13/16] of the moon, on the fourteenth day fourteen kalás [14/16] and on full moon day, fifteen kalas [15/16]. The sixteenth kalá [the sixteenth lunar digit] cannot be seen. The reason is because the slightly tilted position of the moon causes the sixteenth part to be covered by darkness. In ancient times people used to refer to that sixteenth kalá as amákalá [the black lunar digit] or Indu. In any case, 1/13 part of each kalá is called a káśt́há.

5. The time taken by a person to close the eyes is called palaka. Eighteen palakas make one káśt́há.

6. If we like something we call it “good” (bhadra > bhalla > bhallá > bháilá > bhálá > bhála). The beneficence for which reason we admire an entity is also called pará káśt́há.

   You know that in their imagination human beings create a general standard for everything. The more something rises above this standard, the more it elicits human admiration. In this process of rising to the pinnacle, the highest point (the zenith point) that we reach is called káśt́há. Similarly, when something of general standard begins to decline, the lower it sinks, the more it elicits human hatred. The lowest point is hated by most the people. This lowest point is the nadir point. Similarly, if we consider this quinquelemental world as the general standard, then as we go higher and higher through the levels of bhú, bhuvah, sva, maha, jana and tapah, we finally reach the zenith, the highest point of the Satyaloka. Similarly, if we descend deeper and deeper through tala-atala-talátala-pátála, we will reach the nadir point in rasátala. The highest point will be called káśt́há, and the lowest point will be called apa káśt́há.

7. You know everything moves in the form of waves. A wave is divided into two parts – the upper part and the lower part, ascent and descent. The combination of an ascending part with its immediately preceding, descending part is called a káśt́há.

8. You know that the peak of ascent is specially known as káśt́há. But to give it special importance we call it parákáśt́há. Similarly, the nadir of descent is called apakáśt́há. To say that “He has shown the parákáśt́há of sacrifice” means, “He has reached the pinnacle of sacrifice”. In the Puranas it is said, Kalá káśt́hádi rúpeńa…⁽⁴⁾

Kásara

Ka+ ásara = kásara. á + sr + aca + ásara which means “to move towards someone’s side”, “to go towards someone”. Ka means water. So kásara etymologically means “to move towards water” or “one who goes towards water”. In common usage, kásara means:

1. “A Buffalo”. Whether it is alone or in a herd, yoked to a bullock cart or yoked to the plough, a buffalo always runs towards water whenever it sees water. So kásara means a buffalo.

2. In common usage kásara means an otter. If you chase an otter, or if it feels endangered for some reason, it at once runs away and jumps into the water. That is why in Sanskrit one name of the otter is udbiŕál, which literally means water-cat, and in English sea-lion or water-lion. The face of an otter has some similarity to the face of a lion. Perhaps that is the reason why the word “lion” has been used in connection with the otter:

Báŕiir begun dobár mách
Tái kheye kheye bhoṋdaŕ nác.

[The otter dances happily after eating homegrown brinjal and pondfish.]

Kására

Ka + ására. Etymologically it means “the water that attracts others”. In common usage kására means a large water reservoir. In a large water reservoir there are no banks. The shore level slopes gently down to the water line. That is why a sea, lake, old wetland or fen – all can be called kására. It may be seen that when a very old pond keeps on breaking its banks and comes to a stage where it has virtually no bank, the adjacent ground also keeps on eroding to meet the water line. This kind of pond with broken banks or dams is also called kására.

Ku + d́ikhin = kikhi. The verbal root ku is used in many senses. One meaning is grinning and grimacing. So, the etymological meaning of the word kikhi is “one who grimaces”. One speciality about the suffixes d́ikhin and kvan is that the last phoneme of the verbal root can alternately be i. For example, if you add the suffix kvan/kvas to the verbal root kan, the resulting word will of course be kańva, but it can also be kińva. Similarly, if you add the suffix d́ikhin, it can be both kukhi and kikhi. But the kukhi form is not prevalent. In common usage, the word kikhi means:

1. “Monkey”. On the slightest occasion, either due to fear or excitement, a monkey grimaces with clenched fist. So it is called kikhi. This habit of the monkey is prehistoric. Although the ancestors of human beings and monkeys are the same, they were separated at least one million years ago. So a human being also, when frightened or excited, clenches the fist and grimaces. A small child keeps its fist clenched most of the time, and the habit of grimacing also remains predominant in childhood.

2. Another meaning of kikhi in common use is fox. A fox has glinting teeth and face. So one synonym of fox in Sanskrit is ulkámukhii [meteor-faced]

   While talking about kikhi, I am reminded of an incident after a long time.

   That day I had come to the coal depot quite early in the morning and, standing in the queue, I had been most indifferently counting the leaves of a banyan tree. (In the morning you cannot see the stars; if it were possible, I would have been counting the stars only.) All of a sudden I met Ujbuk Singh. Ujbuk Singh is the chief orderly of Akalmand Singh. He was familiar with many private and public matters of his boss. I learnt from Ujbuk Singh that about fifteen days previously his boss had become an additional minister (deputy minister). On seeing me, he gave a broad, beaming smile and said, “Sarkar sahib, since my boss has become the deputy minister, everyday he tells me about his desire to see you. Only this morning he told me, ́I must see Sarkar sahib today by any means. You go to his house and immediately make a ”pontmont“ (”appointment“) with him.’ But I could never imagine that I would run into you like this.”

   I asked, “But why deputy minister? At one time he was a full minister!”

   Ujbuk Singh said: “The time he was a full minister there were many complaints against him regarding nepotism, bribery, casteism, and so on. An enquiry commission was also instituted. But the commission was secretly asked not to give its report before the election. Although the report of the commission has not yet been published, there has certainly been some scandal about my boss. So it is slightly risky to include my boss in the cabinet of ministers. But if he is completely left out, then there may be a rift in the party. So as a compromise formula, he has been made a deputy minister”.

   I said, “Well, I get the point.”

   Ujbuk Singh then asked me: “Please tell me then when my boss should meet you.”

   I said, “Well, exactly at five. If he comes after that I cannot meet him. I am not going to listen to any of those lame excuses like – ‘got late while cutting the ribbon … three cheap toilets were to be inaugurated,’ etc. – understand, Mr Ujruk Singh?”

   He said, “Yes, sir, I understand.”

   The clock struck five. Keeping in mind the time of appointment, Akalmand Singh appeared just in time.

   I asked him: “What’s the matter? How are you?”

   He said, “Earlier I used to waste money on useless things. Now I spend it on having sweets.”

   I asked, “How is that?”

   Akalmand replied: “These days I have become non-violent.”

   I rejoined, “Please clarify a little.”

   He responded: “You know for certain that in western India people say, Jaenu cuńá má Vaiśńavanu duná má. It means that the Jains spend their money on lime, that is, in building big houses and big temples, while the Vaeśńavas spend their money on sweet packets.”

   “Please explain it a little more”, I requested.

   He said, “These days I have accepted non-violence as a creed; that is, I have taken it as a way of life.”

   “But if a minister is non-violent, how can it be?” I queried.

   He asked, “Why?”

   “Of which department are you the deputy minister?” I asked.

   “Of Transport,” he replied.

   I asked, “If some miscreants carelessly begin to set fire to your vehicles, what are you going to do?”

   He said, “I shall shoot arrows.”

   I asked, “Why arrows in this age of megaton bombs!”

   He explained, “Look, everything that is supposed to be progressive in modern science is actually bad for human beings. Whatever was there in bygone days was actually good. Raw sugar is better than sugar, khádi [hand-woven coarse cotton cloth] is better than Mill-made cloth, steam engine is better than a rocket, so an arrow is certainly better than a megaton bomb.”

   I retorted, “Good or bad, that [arrow] will also kill people. That is also an act of violence.”

   Akalmand said, “These days the education system has become so defective that by arrows (shars) you understand a metal arrow.That is not the sense in which I have used the word arrows, and that is not the actual meaning of the word ‘arrows’ either. That is neither the etymological meaning nor is that the meaning in common use. That is just a defect of the modern educational system. So we have decided to completely overhaul the educational system.”

   I asked, “Why do you evade the main issue? Just tell me what you understand by the word shar.”

   He explained, “Shar means the reed from which pens are made – the kind of thing we used for writing in our childhood – the thing that is called kháger kalam [pen made of reed] by people in the villages.”

   “Of what use is that arrow?” I queried.

   He answered, “I shall inscribe the word ‘non-violent’ on every arrow, and that will suffice.”

   I asked, “After becoming non-violent, are you planning to put a total prohibition on the use of arms?”

   He confirmed, “Yes. We want to stop the use of arms all over the world.”

   I enquired, “If you decide not to use any kind of weapon, how are you going to cut the vegetables?”

   He answered, “I don’t cut [the vegetable] into two or cut it into pieces. I burn or bake or boil it to eat.”

   I questioned, “The other day when a grandson was born to you, how did you cut its umbilical cord?”

   He answered, “I have completely prohibited the use of any weapon. So I asked the nurse to cut the umbilical cord with the help of a bamboo slip.”

   I pursued, “Last time when your grandfather died, how did you cut the bamboo for making the hearse?”

   He replied, “There was no need to cut the bamboo. We put fire at the places where it was to be cut and then twisted it several times, and it broke on its own.”

   I said, “Well I, understand. But did you not chop the logs into small pieces for burning?”

   He said, “The chopped logs were not necessary at all. We burnt it in the crematorium.”

   I then realized that Akalmand Singh was adamant.

   I resumed, “You are engaged in agriculture and farming. Then many insects must die at the tip of the plough or a power-tiller or tractor when you use these to till the soil. Is that not an act of violence? The sickle with which you reap the corn, is it not a weapon?”

   Akalmand retorted, “I no longer tread a path of sin like that. I no longer cultivate. That is a great sin… great sin…great sin. I have given up farming altogether.”

   I asked, “What are you doing then?”

   He said, “I have begun to build a cow herd, maintain cows and do dairy farming”.

   I asked, “Then how do you give fodder to the cows? How do you cut the bunch of straw to pieces?”

   He said, “I don’t cut the hay; I don’t cut the straw to pieces. I tear it by hand and put the pieces in the eating vessel.”

   Now I realized that Akalmand is indeed a very serious practitioner of non-violence.

   I said, “I have noticed that many gods and goddesses have weapons in their hands. Do you think they believe in violence?”

   Akalmand responded, “Look, in this respect I have a few words to say. First, you should never compare divinities with humans. What is prohibited to humans is allowed to divinities. And what is forbidden for divinities is allowed to humans. So when divinities have weapons in their hands, we must presume that those are not weapons; those are sacred objects like copper vessel and basil leaves. And in case they really have weapons, even that does not matter.”

   Devatár belay liilákhelá
   Páp likheche mánuśer belá.

   [What is playful pleasantry for divinities is considered sin for humans.]

   I asked, “And what is your second argument?”

   Akalmand replied, “What you see in the hands of divinities and take for weapons are not actually weapons. That is your misunderstanding – a learning error. That is the reason why I say that the educational system must be overhauled”.

   I said, “Many gods and goddesses have bows and arrows in their hands. How would you account for that?”

   He said, “Didn’t I tell you a little while ago that an arrow means shar, a pen made of reed?”

   I said, “Many gods and goddesses carry lotus in their hands. There are bees, wasps, bumblebees, etc. in the lotus, and these insects sting. Is it non-violence?”

   He replied, “You should remove the insects by violently shaking the lotus before you put it in the hand of a god or a goddess. Then it will be alright.”

   I said, “Many deities have conch shells in their hands. A conch is a marine creature. The fishermen catch them in their nets. Then they boil it in hot water and remove the flesh and other parts. Then they clean the shell and sell it in the market. Is it not violence?”

   He said, “Yes, what you have said is partly true but not wholly true.”

   “Why?” I asked.

   He said, “There are also many dead conches in the sea. If the fishermen collect only those, then there will be no violence.”

   I said, “But will the fishermen agree?”

   He said, “We will make an amendment of the Constitution to prohibit the collection of live conches.”

   I said, “Then are you going to prohibit fishing [live fish] as well?”

   “No problem,” he said. “Even otherwise, the Constitution is amended a dozen times every year. What does it matter if it is amended a few more times?”

   I said, “But what about the clubs and mallets that some gods and goddesses have in their hands? Would you call that non-violent also?”

   Akalmand retorted, “Look, again it raises the question of lack of education and bad education.”

   I said, “Do you mean to say that owing to our lack of education, what we take for clubs in the hands of gods and goddesses are not really clubs?”

   He said, “Exactly. You took the words right out of my mouth.”

   “How’s that?” I asked.

   He declared, “People who believe in violence have armed gods and goddesses with clubs for their own ideological satisfaction. Actually it is not a club at all; it is a gourd – a club-gourd, in fact. Haven’t you read Shabda Cayaniká? There lots of praise has been showered on the club-gourd. The gods with club-gourds in their hands want to say, ‘O humans! Without wasting any more time, start eating preparations of club-gourd. It will do you immense good!’”

   I asked, “Then what we take for a club in the hands of the divinities is actually a club-gourd?”

   He said, “Yes, of course yes; a hundred times yes.”

   I proffered, “Well, we have practically finished the discussion. But, still there is one point that is yet to be sorted out. What about the cakra [the wheel-shaped missile], the boomerang that we see in the hands of some divinities?”

   He averred, “Here also the issue is lack of education and bad education. This is the reason why in the cabinet we are discussing seven and a half times every day how to overhaul the entire educational system.”

   I retorted, “If you want to overhaul the educational system, do it. It’s your baby; you do whatever you like. You know better. Once a minister obstinately removed English from the syllabus and in the process ruined an entire generation of students. Those students are nowhere now; they are not getting any job. Some, after doing B.A., are bleating about, and some after doing M.A., are babbling about. Anyway, you are at the helm of affairs; you do whatever you like. But you just account for the cakra.”

   He said, “Your basic premise is wrong. The divinities never had any cakra, nor will they ever have any. This is either your misunderstanding or your optical illusion.”

   “What do you mean?” I queried.

   He answered, “That is actually a spinning wheel, that is, carká. The divinities are holding it in their hands.”

   “What are you trying to suggest?” I asked.

   Akalmand retorted, “What does your linguistics say, or philology or phonetics?”

   “The word carká has come from the word cakra, and not the other way round,” I answered.

   Akalmand said, “So, there you are!”

   “How so?” I asked.

   He explained, “The rules in the divine society are just the opposite of the rules of human society. I mean, according to the language of the divinities, the word cakra has come from the word carká. The divinities had spinning wheels in their hands, and the violent humans have made it into cakra.”

   I now understood that Akalmand Singh is an out and out non-violent person. I thought I would go one time to his house and see the changes that have taken place since he became a votary of non-violence.

   The next day, very early in the morning – even before the crows had started cawing – I started for the house of Akalmand Singh. As I knocked on the door, a servant said from inside, “The master is not at home.” The residents forthwith began whispering something amongst themselves. Then I overheard a lady telling the servant, “Tell him that he’s at home, but it will take some time to see him.”

   Then the servant said, “Sir, the master’s at home but you will have to wait for some time”.

   Whereupon I told the servant, “Tell him, that I am Mr. Sarkar; I will not wait even one second, I’m leaving.”

   I had hardly gone two steps when Akalmand Singh, busy putting a guernsey on rushed up to me exclaiming, “Where are you going! The servant told you all rubbish without knowing you.”

   “Did you instruct him like that?” I asked.

   He affirmed, “Yes, I only instructed him like that. You see, people visit me with all kinds of motives. In order to escape them, I’ve given this instruction.”

   Holding me [respectfully], Akalmand led me into his drawing room.

   I told him, “Now I won’t sit inside. Better let’s go to the rooftop; we’ll get some fresh air there.”

   As I was about to climb the stairs leading to the roof with his storeroom on our right, I noticed a recently killed, huge rat lying against the outer wall of the storeroom.

   I blurted out, “Shame, shame, shame, shame! What’s this! Fie, fie! What’s this? Such an act of violence in the house of a non-violent person! What an act of cruelty – an anathema! The sacred vow of non-violence thrown to the winds! This is virtually a slaughtering of nonviolence! Alas! Alas! How has it come to such a pass?”

   The dark face of Akalmand Singh turned violet (had his face been white, it would have turned crimson in shame) as he replied. “This is exactly what I was going to tell you. Just look at these corporation people; just see what they have done.”

   I rejoined, “How strange! The corporation people stormed into your storeroom and killed the rat, and then themselves disappeared without even caring to remove the dead rat as they saw me entering! Just see what an awkward situation they have actually put you in!”

   “When exactly did the corporation people come?” I asked.

   He said. “No one came from the corporation”.

   “Then why do you blame them?” I asked.

   He said, “Yesterday afternoon the corporation people were watering the streets with a hose. There was a monkey sitting on a tin roof by the wayside. A flippant young boy directed the mouth of the hose towards the monkey for fun. Annoyed and irritated as well as frightened by it, with gritting teeth and grimaces he jumped out of sight. Just nearby there was a huge grazing area … a grazing ground for buffaloes. A huge buffalo, you understand, a kásara”

   I said, “Oh yes, yes, of course I know, for sure I know.”

   He resumed, “Annoyed by the grimaces of the monkey, a huge Gujarati buffalo weighing some sixty maunds⁽⁵⁾ rushed at the monkey. There was a hurdle on the way: a wall made of earth. The wall collapsed as the buffalo dashed against it. On the other side of the wall an elephant was standing. As soon as the wall collapsed on its body, the flabbergasted elephant started running at a speed of two hundred miles per minute. In the course of running, this elephant violently collided against the roadside wall of my storeroom. There were a number of dishes kept against the wall, and the rat, sitting in the chinks between the plates, was happily chewing the bones of a fish.”

   I wondered, “Fish bones in the house of nonviolence! Strange…totally topsy-turvy! Alas, alas, see how nonviolence is ruthlessly butchered! It is like seeing a stone floating on water! Whatever fish it may be – be it shol [large tubular fish] or moháshol [a larger variety of shol] – eating fish is a serious act of violence, surely a serious act of violence indeed!”

   He said apologetically, “It is only the servants who eat fish, the residents don’t. Anyway, with the push of the elephant, the utensils fell down noisily, and look; it had to fall on the rat! How can such a small creature of God stand the weight of so many dishes! Consequently it died of suffocation. I have now planned to perform its funeral rites. Then I shall organize a kiirtana of nonviolence. All the big ministers, half-ministers, ministers without portfolio – all, all will come. I am planning to put up a multi-coloured canopy, and I am trying to see that this particular day is declared a holiday.”

   I said, “Holiday? Just for such a petty thing!”

   He said defensively, “These days – reason or no reason – holidays are very frequent. And when such a heart-rending accident has occurred in the house of someone who is no less than a deputy minister, how can there be no holiday? The day must be declared a holiday, must, must, must.”

   I again asked, “Who then has actually killed the rat?”

   He promptly replied, “Of course the corporation people. It is their fault that such a mishap took place.”

   I said, “Do you know, there is a word, ‘hypocrisy’ in English. Look it up in the dictionary and see how it is rendered in Bengali.”

   He apologized, “I don’t know much English.”

   I asked, “How are you doing the job of a minister then?”

   He said, “Oh, for running a ministry you don’t need to know English. I understand things because the secretaries explain it. Then I just put my signature on the place they point to with their forefinger.”

   I wondered, “So you can sign then!”

   He admitted, “Formerly I was not able to. Then somebody wrote my name. And then, by repeatedly tracing it with ink, I have attained quite some mastery in signing my name.”

   I asked, “Before this you used to manage with the fingerprint then?”

   He confessed, “Exactly.”

   “Do you remember which finger you used for the purpose?” I asked.

   He boasted, “There is no chance of making any mistake about that.”

   I asked, “Which finger, just tell me.”

   He replied, “Why, of course the right toe.”

   I said, “Then please ask somebody to find out for you the exact Bengali meaning of the word, ‘hypocrisy’.”

Footnotes

(1) Hubahu is a foreign word.

(2) In South India there is a river named Kaoveri. People mistakenly call it Káveri.

(3) “Thakur” has been anglicized as “Tagore”. –Trans.

(4) “Paramá Prakrti advances onwards in the form of crest and trough.”.–Trans.

(5) One maund = about 82 lbs. –Trans.

Chapter 6	Shabda Cayaniká Part 4

Kit́i

We have been discussing ka for a long time – today also we will continue. Last Sunday we discussed kikhi – isn’t it? Today let us first take up the word kit́i. The verbal root kit́ + suffix i = kit́i. The verbal root kit́ means to move evoking fear, to frighten, or to walk in such a manner that others feel frightened. So etymologically the word kit́i means – one who provokes fear in others while walking on the path.

1. The sight of a prowling wild boar evokes a feeling of fear in a person. It is just possible that the wild boar in that case did not have any intention to attack or even to frighten the person concerned. It was just roaming about as per its own sweet will. In common usage, a wild boar is therefore called a kit́i.

2. Suppose a rhinoceros is simply enjoying itself by wallowing in mud and slime – in eating mud and chewing grass. Even then a person can feel frightened, and in fact people do get frightened.

   Both kinds of rhinoceros – one with one horn and the other with two horns – are called kit́i. You surely know that a rhino is one of those prehistoric animals, which, although on the verge of extinction, somehow still survives. It is believed that the prehistoric rhino was one and half sizes larger than the present ones. Although there is no definite proof, it can be said on the basis of certain strong inferences that the ancestors of the present rhinos had several horns on the upper part of the body. Those horns were also stronger than the horns of today’s rhinos. The present day rhinos have very weak vision. It is not easy to know the quality of vision of ancient rhinos. Prehistoric rhinos have evolved into the one-horned rhino, two-horned rhino, wild boar, and common hog of our time.

   There are [[four]] major differences between the rhino and a member of the hog family.

   1. The skin of a rhino is harder, thicker and more invincible than that of any other animal. The skin of the hog family, on the other hand, is very thin. It is quite unimaginable that a ferocious animal like the wild boar could have such soft skin.

      I have seen communities in the Ranchi region boiling a wild boar along with its skin. They told me, “Sir, after boiling you can simply rub off the skin.” It is due to this meagre hide that the hog does not serve any commercial purpose. In ancient times items like brushes were made from the hair of particular parts of the hog’s body. With the invention of plastic in modern times, that need no longer exists.

      The invincible skin of a rhino was used as a shield in olden times. Now the use of a shield for fighting is on the wane. Rhinos have also become scarce.

   2. Another difference between a rhino and members of the hog family is that the latter avoid water and are dirty by nature. But a rhino loves water and is much cleaner than a hog. Apart from this, there are certain minor differences as well. A rhino has weak vision, while the vision of a hog is by and large quite good. A domesticated hog is a pusillanimous animal, while a wild boar is very brave and obstinate. A rhino is brave but not obstinate; it is rather jolly in temperament. So much so that even in its wild state, it is not a natural enemy of anyone.

      Domesticated hogs are generally vegetarian, but they have no objection to eating very hideous and dirty items. Wild boars are sometimes vegetarian, sometimes carnivorous, according to the situation. However, the wild boar is a very favourite food of tigers, and tigers frequent the Sunderbans where antelopes and wild boars abound. Even then, there remains some kind of long and distant familiarity between the tiger and the wild boar. An adult wild boar avoids the adult tiger. An adult wild boar kills the tiger cub and eats its flesh. And an adult tiger kills the wild boar that is yet to come of age and eats its flesh. The flesh of the wild boar is a very favourite food of the tiger.

      Once upon a time there was a dense population of wild boars in every part of Bengal. Names like Barabanii (Baráhabanii, that is, the forest inhabited by many boars), Barabhum (Baráhabhúm: the capital was Baráhabázár – Barabazar), bear evidence of this. The name of Baranagar near Kolkata, however, is of recent origin. It is said that the Portuguese used to export pork from that town. That is why the place was named Baráhanagar [Baráha or Bará means a “boar”].

      A rhino is vegetarian by nature. It is not the enemy of any particular animal. Daunted by its hard, thick and adamantine skin, no one dares to attack it.

      At one time there were rhino populations in various parts of India. What to speak of the prehistoric age, even just one hundred and fifty years ago, herds of rhinos used to roam the Ráŕh region. Many rhinos lived at the foot of the Rajmahal hills, in the Birbhum district and along the southwest bank of the Padma and Bhagirathii rivers. The smaller sized rhinos thrived in the Sundarbans even one hundred and fifty years ago. The flesh of the rhino was a very favourite food, [a delicacy] for the Bengalis of that period. One feels quite astounded to learn or to think that human beings have killed the rhinos not only for their horns or skin but also for the flesh.

      In India some rhinos still exist; they are found in the Duars region of North Bengal and upper Assam, the temperate plains of Bhutan and central Nepal. Everywhere they are counting the days until their final extinction. Human beings of ancient times believed that the medicine made from the rhino’s horn could rejuvenate them. So the cruel practice of poaching rhinos prevailed in every age and continues to prevail even today. The situation has come to such a pass that the few one-horned or two-horned rhinos that still remain may disappear any time from the face of the earth. Although there is a slight increase in their population in the Kaziranga Sanctuary of Assam, one rarely comes across them in ordinary forests. The medicinal properties of the rhino horn are neither a verified truth nor has it any scientific basis. Is it not extremely abominable to exterminate an innocent creature due to some wrong notion?

      Let me mention in this connection that fossil records provide evidence that at one time rhinos thrived in coastal Orissa, Caromandal, at the foot of the Sivalic range [Himalaya], in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Hariyana. Quite large-sized rhinos inhabited Bankura of Ráŕh region and Manbhum.

      According to some, one branch of ancestors of the hog family, of the rhinos and boars, when attacked by more ferocious animals, escaped into the water, and these are now known as porpoises. Like the boars, the porpoises are also mammals. Since, strictly speaking, the porpoises were originally terrestrial animals, they cannot breathe properly under water. That is why even today they surface from time to time above the water and then again dive under.

      There are various reasons by which it can be proved and established that the porpoise is a descendant of certain prehistoric terrestrial animals. But it cannot be emphatically claimed that a porpoise is the descendant of a member of a hog family, because the members of the hog family are strongly allergic to water. The population growth rate of domesticated hogs is exceptionally high. In this regard, it exceeds any other terrestrial creature. In the insect family it is comparable only to a kit́ibha [locust].

   3. The population growth rate of wild boars is much lower than that of domesticated hogs. The population growth of rhinos is miserably low. On the one hand a minimal increase in population and on the other the slaughtering ceremony of the human beings – the combination of the two has brought rhinos to the brink of extinction. Officially not a single rhino remains in the Ráŕh region or in the Sunderbans. In this connection, let me tell you that the horn of a rhino is nothing but a thick, solid mass of hair.

   4. Rhinos like a humid tropical climate, and they live only in such regions. However, hogs are seen to survive in any climate and in any part of the world except unusually cold regions. While in Spain sitting on a hillock on the beach of the Mediterranean, I saw the wild boars of that country. Although they appeared to be like the wild boars of Bengal in every respect, I noticed a difference in complexion. The wild boars may not be declining in number as fast as the rhinos, but they are also fast heading towards extinction. From my personal experience I know that at one time a substantial number of wild boars inhabited the River Behula basin (Gáuṋgur) in Burdwan district. I doubt if even a few still remain.

      Both rhinos and wild boars are called kit́is. So in order to make a distinction between the two in ancient times, certain scholars used to describe the rhino as a big kit́i.

Kit́ibha

Kit́i + bha + d́a = kit́ibha. The etymological meaning of the word kit́ibha is “that which looks like a kit́i”. In common usage, kit́ibha means the following:

1. Bug. There are two reasons why a bug is called kit́ibha. Suppose you have returned very tired … it is already night … you are about to sleep. Then suddenly you notice a bug on your bed. Well, you might have immediately killed the bug. But you are left with the apprehension that since you have spotted one bug, there must be more bugs in the bed. “I will lose my sleep for nothing tonight.” You are frightened by the bleak prospect of spending an agonizing night. The kind of fear that you experience on seeing the bug is similar to the kind of fear you have on seeing a rhino or a boar. So a bug is called kit́ibha, that is, like a kit́i [rhino].

2. In ancient times people used to say that there is another reason for calling a bug kit́ibha. That is, if you look at a bug through a magnifying glass, making it fifty or hundred times larger than its actual size, you will see that it is a creature of horrifying appearance. Howsoever brave and valorous you may be, you are sure to be frightened by the terrible sight of the hugely magnified bug. That is why another name for bug is kit́ibha.

Kila

The meanings of the verbal root kila are:

1. To become shining white or to make something shining white.

2. To bring about harmony.

3. Shoot or throw something.

4. To cut or shred into pieces.

   We get the word kila by adding the suffix ka to the verbal root kil.

In common usage the word kila means the following:

1. Freshly washed cloth.

2. Newly whitewashed house.

3. To look for points of affinity between two objects (to compare with).

4. Very small object, molecule or atom.

5. What has been finely shredded, or a patty made in that manner; a cutlet for example.

   Both vegetable cutlets and non-vegetarian cutlets are made by shredding something into the tiniest pieces (minced meat, for example). So a cutlet is called kila or kilánna in chaste Bengali.

Kilát́a

Kila + at́ac = kilát́a. Etymologically kilát́a means “that which has been whitened”. In common usage kilát́a means the following:

1. Freshly washed, immaculately white cloth.

2. A house that has just been whitewashed.

3. Panir (cheese). Cheese is also called kilát́a. The word panir is of Persian root – “cheese” is English.

   If you wish, you can easily use the word kilát́a for panir or cheese, in Bengali or in other Indian languages.

Kilaka

Kila + ki + ac or kila + ki + ka = kilaka. The etymological meaning of kilaka is “that which brilliantly whitens”. In common usage it means soap. In ancient times the word kilaka was used for soda or for fuller’s earth.

Kisala

Ki + sal + ac = kisala. Ki has a diminutive connotation. The verbal root sal means “to move” or “to walk”. The word kisala can be used in this etymological sense to describe a small entity which is in progress or a small object for which there is visible potential of creation. Sal can be spelt with sh also. So the spelling kishala is also correct. In common usage kisala means a newly sprouting branch, or leaf or bud.

Kisalaya/Kishalaya

Kisala +ńyat/kiyaiṋ = Kisalaya. In the etymological sense it means that which has a tendency towards kisala. In common usage kisalaya means a red, tender, new leaf.

Kiicaka

The verbal root kiic means to make a sound by touching. Etymologically kiicaka means “that which produces sound” when it touches something else. In common usage it means the following:

1. A bamboo twig or kaiṋcuka. Kiicakii or kaiṋcukii means the branch of a bamboo or the slip of a bamboo.

2. If a bamboo is very hollow, then not only the bamboo twig but even the bamboo itself will create a sound when it comes in contact with air. So hollow bamboo is also called kiicaka.

3. If someone touches fire, they will at once let out a shriek. So one name of fire is kiicaka.

4. If a demon, ghoul or carnivore touches an edible animal, then that animal lets out a plaintive shriek. Therefore the word kiicaka is used for an demon, ghoul or carnovore.

5. Kiicaka is the name of a mythical demon.

Kiit́a

The verbal root of kiit́a is generally used in three senses:

1. To be frightened.

2. To frighten.

3. To colour or to burnish. We get the word kiit́a by adding the suffix ka to the verbal root kiit́, for which the etymological meaning is – “one who feels frightened” or “one who, when seen, frightens others”, or “one who does colouring”. In common usage the word kiit́a means the following:

4. An insect (kiit́a >kiid́a>kiiŕá).

5. The second meaning of the word kiit́a is paintbrush.

6. The third meaning of kiit́a is colouring ingredient. The verbal root kiit́a is used in connection with the painting of doors and windows or burnishing furniture.

Kiit́aja

Kiit́a + jan + d́a = kiit́aja. Etymologically kiit́aja means “that which is produced by or born out of kiit́a”.

1. Aguru is a kind of incense produced in trees. However, inside the tree is a small insect that produces the incense through some chemical process (kiit́aka means a small kiit́a). So one meaning of kiit́aja is aguru, which is produced in ágara trees. In the sense of aguru, the word kiit́aja is of masculine gender and its declension will be kiit́ajah (like the word nara).

2. Gálá or lákśá (lac) is produced by a type of insect. Generally this insect is born in the jujube tree or the kusuma [safflower] tree (kusmi gálá). However, they are born in certain other trees as well, although in small quantity. Since gálá or lákśá is produced by an insect, it is also called kiit́aja. But in this case, the word is of feminine gender, that is, kiit́ajá (like the word latá). Another name for what we understand as silk (derived from silik in Arabic and resham in Persian) or ciináḿshuk (shining object brought from China) is kiit́aja, because silk is produced from a type of insect.

   Although there are various species of this insect, it is mainly divided into two subspecies: mulberry and non-mulberry. The insects associated with mulberry silk generally survive on mulberry leaves. The insects associated with non-mulberry silk eat the leaves of various trees according to the sub-species they belong to, and the quality of the silk is determined accordingly. For example, the insects which are nurtured in the shál tree or the jujube tree are known as tasara kiit́a. Tasara [a coarse silk] is produced in ample quantity in the Ráŕh region and in the shál forest of Chotonagpur. The weaving of tasara cloth used to be done extensively in Katwa, Raniganj, Bankura and in the Tantiipara of Birbhum. There was a time when Bengal tasar was famous outside India. The Europeans loved to wear suits made of tasar. Tantiipara of Birbhum was one of the most prosperous weavers’ villages of Bengal.The cottage industry of tasar is now in its death throes. Tantiipara also shares the same fate.

   The slightly reddish silk produced by non-mulberry silkworms that live on the leaves of the drumstick [Moringa adams Lamk], is called mugá. Mugá is primarily produced in Assam. The climate of certain parts of Bengal and Bihar is congenial to the production of mugá silk. The slightly golden-coloured silk produced by non-mulberry silkworms that grows on reŕhi plants [Ricinus communis] is called eńd́i. Production of eńd́i is very high in Assam. However, if some efforts are made, it can be satisfactorily produced in Bengal, North Bihar and the northern and eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh. Moreover, it is possible to cultivate non-mulberry silk if proper care is taken of the ákanda tree or arka-patra [sun plant], and in special cases the rose apple tree (jambuphalam) and the palásh or kiḿshuka [Butea gum; Butea monosperma].

   The cultivation of mulberry silk was introduced into India a few thousand years ago under the influence of China. That is why the alternative name of mulberry silk in Bengali and Sanskrit is ciináḿshuk. When the word kiit́aja is used to mean silk, it becomes a neuter gender; that is, its form will be kiit́ajam (like the word phala). The mulberry silk is called garad in Bengali. Although many types of garad exist, there are primarily two kinds; one is ghiyá (ghee-coloured) and the other is dudhiyá (shining white). When the chrysalis of the mulberry silk breaks out of the cocoon, then the threads become coarse. It is then called mat́ká instead of garad. When the chrysalis of a tasar breaks out of its cocoon, the coarse thread produced is called ket́e instead of tasar. Afterwards the silkworm was taken from Bengal to Kashmir and Mysore. Kashmir silk, Bangalore silk or Mysore silk are actually local variations of Murshidabad silk.

   The cultivation of resham/garad (silk) has been going on since very ancient times in Rajsahi,⁽¹⁾ Maldaha,⁽²⁾ Murshidabad,⁽³⁾ Birbhum⁽⁴⁾ (Vasoyá-Vishnupur) and Bankura (Vishnupur). The silkworm came from China a very long time ago. In the Bankura district there was a particular community that cultivated silk. These people were known as tuṋte musalmán [“blue vitriol Muslims”].

Kit́aghna

The etymological meaning of the word kiit́aghna is “killer of pest”, or “pesticide”. In common usage the word kit́aghna means the following:

1. Any medicine or poison that kills insects.

2. The second meaning of the word kiit́aghna is sulphur.

3. The third meaning of kiit́aghna is copper sulphate or the poison of blue vitriol.

Kiila

We get the word kiila by adding the suffix ka or, according to some, by adding the suffix ac to the verbal root kiil. The verbal root kiil has many etymological meanings as it is used in many senses. In addition to the usual meanings of the verbal root kiil – such as to become shining white, to whiten, to bring about harmony, to throw, to shred into fine bits, or to cut into pieces – the verbal root kiil also means to tie up, pierce, stitch or string, bury and strike.

In common usage kiila means the following:

1. A cloth which has been washed by kilaka or soap. Something that has been made shining white can be called kiila.

2. By mixing mercury and sulphur we get mercuric sulphide. If pure gold is used as a catalytic agent in making mercuric sulphide (the gold being recovered afterwards), then it is called gold-induced makaradhvaja [aqua ragia]. The met́e sindur which women use in some places is actually lead-oxide, and the ciná sindur [vermilion] that many women use in some places is actually mercuric sulphide. Long ago human beings came to know the process of making mercuric sulphide. In some places mercuric sulphide was available in its natural state; but they could not make mercurus sulphide nor was it available in its natural state. Acarya Prafulla Chandra Roy created mercurus sulphide by mixing mercury and sulphur at a particular temperature. We can say that Sir P. C. Roy made a fine combination of mercury and sulphur. So we can use the word kiila in this case.

3. Any comparison of the affinities between two objects can be called both kila and kiila.

4. The word kiila can be used to mean shredding into fine pieces – for example, breaking an object into molecules or breaking a molecule into atoms or harnessing great energy by splitting an atom; it is also used for the object that is subjected to such a procedure. So molecular and atomic research come under the purview of the word kiila.

5. One meaning of the word kiila is bond. Human beings have to suffer the bondages of the experiences of previous births. So we can say that a creature exists in the kiila state as the innate saḿskára of previous births.

6. One meaning of the verbal root kiila is to pierce. So a syringe which is used to pierce with a needle is also called kiila.

7. The act of piercing the nose and ears of girls with a needle to facilitate the use of ornaments is also called kiiliikarańa or kiila. The needle used for this purpose is also called kiila. The lower part of the ear is pierced [perforated] in order to wear ear ornaments. For nose ornaments, the thick parts of the sides of the nose are pierced, and for using a nose ring (nolaka) the middle part of the nose is pierced. The word kiila is used for all three kinds of piercing.

8. In order to put a number of things together, we paste them together with glue. So this glue is also called kiila.

9. The (cotton) thread with which a garland is strung is also called kiila.

10. The identification pillar that is buried at a particular place to mark a boundary is also called kiila.

11. Many a time people use a screw to fix one hard object to another. This fixing of objects can be done more strongly with a screw than a nail. So a screw (in colloquial Bengali many people call it skrup) is also called kiila. The instrument (screwdriver) used to screw or unscrew an object is therefore called kiila-cáliká.

12. The tall poles or posts that are used for electric, telephonic or telegraphic transmissions are buried in the ground. So in these cases also, the word kiila can be used. For example, we say electric kiila to mean an electric pole. Some people think that a pillar or column can also be called kiila. No, the word kiila cannot be used for a pillar or a column, because we do not bury a pillar or column; we raise it on the ground. We can easily use the word áloka-kiila or báti-kiila for a lamp post.

13. A pin is used to connect two objects by piercing them and connecting them with a pin. So since ancient times a pin is called kiila.

14. A safety pin is used to connect part of one cloth to part of another cloth. In other words, a safety pin holds together two separate pieces of cloth. So the word kiila can be used for safety pin.

15. A needle is used to string a garland among other things. So one synonym of needle is kiila. The common name of a chuṋc [a needle] is suca or sucii; the Bengali word chuṋc is derived therefrom.

16. A button connects one part of a shirt with another part. So a button may be called basana-kiila (The word botám for button is a foreign word).

17. I told you a little while ago that one meaning of the word kiila is to strike. Since ancient times, people used to strike with their elbows. So one meaning of the word kiila is the elbow.

18. To strike with the elbow or to push with the elbow is also called kiila.

19. Striking with a clenched fist is also called kiila (kiil, caŕ, ghuśi). Many people wrongly spell kiil as kil [in Bengali]. This mistake should be corrected.

20. Another meaning of the word kiila is a sheathed weapon (just as a sword is kept in a scabbard).

21. Another meaning of the word kiila is a flame which is carried with the help of an object. Suppose, for example, you light a sheaf of hay with fire from the hearth, and then you carry that burning hay to another hearth and light it. This hay on fire is kiila.

22. In a limited sense, even a spark of fire is called kiila. For example, in a village there are juxtaposed thatched houses. When one house catches fire, the tongue of the flame leaps forward and ignites the hay of the adjoining thatched roof. It is thus that village after village is burnt to ashes. In the months of Caetra and Vaeshákh [last and first months respectively of the Bengali calendar] such sights are visible in the Ráŕh region.

23. Another meaning of the word kiila is to bet or to stake. In ancient times, whenever there was any dispute among people, they used to settle it through horse racing. The horse race was also prevalent in Europe, but there the greyhound race was more common. However, the victory of a party was determined by the victory of the horse representing that party. In Sanskrit one of the many names of a horse is bájii. So the sport of horse racing was called bájiikhelá, bájiijetá [winning the horse race], bájiimát [winning the stake], etc.

    To become skillfully victorious or absolutely victorious was also called bájiimát. The magicians [or jádugars⁽⁵⁾] completely win over the spectators by performing magic with sleight of hand. That is why in Sanskrit a magician is called bájiikar. The word bájiimát is derived therefrom. In western Ráŕh region there is a small community of people who make a living by performing magic; they are known as bájiikar. In our Birbhum, there are a few people who belong to this class of bájiikar.

    Man gariiber kii doś áche,
    Tumi bájiikarer meye Shyámá
    Yeman nácáo temani náce.

    [What is the fault of the poor mind? O goddess, Shyámá, you are the daughter of a magician and the mind dances to your tune.]

    Suppose Háṋdu and Bhoṋdu are engaged in a hot dispute. Háṋdu says, “The Damodar flows through our Bankura.” Bhoṋdu says, “No, there is no Damodar in your Bankura. The Damodar exists only in our Burdwan.” This leads to a heated debate. Finally it is decided to make a wager of ten kilos of rasagolla. Subsequently it is found that Háṋdu is right; the Damodar flows through Bankura district. Bhoṋdu loses the game; so Bhoṋdu must now give ten kilos of rasagolla to Háṋdu to eat. These ten kilos of rasagolla constitute the stake.

24. Another meaning of the word kiila is a long pin or stick of metal or wood, such as a match stick (diipashaláká > diiashaláá > diyáshlái > deshlái), broomstick, stem of the drumstick or nat́e stick [a kind of pot herb or spinach]. For all these the word kiila can be used.

25. You are definitely familiar with a nut and bolt. A bolt is called boltu in colloquial Bengali. This boltu is also called kiila.

26. If a cow or some other animal is tied to a pillar of wood or bamboo, and if the pillar is long and strong enough for the animal to rub its body against it, then that pillar is called kiila.

27. If a thatched roof is supported by a strong pillar of wood that has been first buried in the ground (in the Ráŕh region the wood of the jambu or blackberry tree is primarily used), then that pillar is also called kiila.

Kiila + kan = kiilaka. Most meanings of the word kiilaka are similar to the meanings of kiila.

1. But while one meaning of the word kiila is screw, kiilaka does not mean screw; it means a long nail or peg.

2. Another meaning of the word kiilaka is pillar. This kind of pillar can be used to tie animals. But it should not be very long, and it should not be possible for an animal to rub its body against the pillar.

3. Another meaning of the word kiilaka is nut. Please remember carefully that the bolt is kiila and the nut is kiilaka.

Kiilakii

Kiilakii means a very small nail or pin (káṋt́ii or kant́akii). The small pins that are used in repairing a shoe are also called kiilakii.

Kiinásh

Here the prefix kii has been used in the pejorative sense as kutsit [ugly]. For example kutsit puruśa = kápuruśa [coward]. Kii + násha = kiinásha. Etymologically kiinásha means “that which destroys ugliness” or “which is continously engaged in the act of destruction in an ugly manner”. In common usage kiinásha means the following:

1. A tiller or farmer. The farmers with their individual labour remove the barren look of the land and make it beautiful with the lush greenery of cornfields. So a synonym for farmer is kiinásha.

2. The process of continuously cutting an object into smaller and smaller pieces is also called kiinásha.

3. Certain creatures are more beautiful in their childhood than when they grow up, such as a duckling, a puppy, etc. The word kiinásha can be used as a common word for all such creatures that are more beautiful in childhood.

4. Compared to an adult or an elderly person, a child is much more beautiful. So for a human child or the child of a monkey, the word kiinásha can be used.

5. A hunter or a butcher by his despicable action deprives an innocent creature of its right to live. Therefore the word kiinásha is used for a hunter or a butcher.

6. The god of death kills creatures without having any compunction for those innocent hearts [of near and dear ones] who suffer as a consequence.

Kiisha

Ka means water. Iisha [lord] of water – it is in this sense that the word kiisha was used in ancient times. In its etymological sense, kiisha means “one who is fully aware of the nature and properties of water”. In its second etymological meaning, it refers to one who is sufficiently intelligent or old enough to understand the qualitative and functional differences between water and fire. A child of three or four, for example, knows that water wets and fire burns. In common usage kiisha means the following:-

1. The naked person, who is old enough to know the differences between water and fire, but who moves about naked in the society.

2. A sannyási [ascetic] is always free from the bondage of shame. However, for the welfare of society, most ascetics do not move about naked. Yet there is a particular class of ascetics who, as part of their code of asceticism, always remain naked, irrespective of time, place, or person. They are called nauṋgá sannyásii. (The word nauṋgá is derived from the word nagna. Many people call them nágá sannyásii by mistake. No, one should not speak like this. Nágá means an inhabitant of Nagaland). The word kiisha means this náuṋgá sannyásii [naked ascetic].

   A small sect of náuṋgá sannyási does not remain completely naked. They use a small wooden kaopiin [a small piece of loin cloth worn like a suspensor]. These ascetics wearing wooden loin cloth are generally known as kát́hiyábábá. These kát́hiyá sannyásis do not belong to the category of kiisha. During the British period, one of the leading ascetics of India was Ramdas Kathiyababajii. After the demise of Ramdas Kathiyababajii, his mantle fell on Brajabidehii Santadasbabaji. Brajabidehii Santadas Babajii was an advocate of the Calcutta High Court. His pre-initiation name was Late Tarakishor Chaudhuri. His home was in Habiganj of Sylhet district. Santadas Babajii was not a kát́hiyá.

   Rámdás ko rám miilá tiirath siiyáni kuńd́á,
   Santjan to sahiih máne jhut́hii máne guńd́á.

   [Ramdas has experienced Rama, a sacred, inexhaustible well. The pious accept it as true but the heathens call it a lie.]

3. In intelligence a monkey is somewhat close to human being. There are, however, some mentally retarded persons, whose intelligence is less than a monkey’s. The word bánara is generally used for them. “You have the shape of a human being but your intelligence is like a monkey’s – stop aping please.” Whatever may be the level of intelligence, a monkey does not wear clothes, although it understands the difference between water and fire. That is why the word kiisha means “a monkey”.
    

   One Mr. Mukherjee used to live in our city. When he used to stay in his own village in Burdwan district, all the village people used to gather at his house in the evening and sit round him listening to his stories. When he would come to our town in connection with his work, it was a common sight that, if not the city people, the local people would be pestering him for stories. They would go on clamouring, “Mr. Mukherjee, sir, please tell us stories … we want stories … more stories … colourful stories … funny stories.”

   Mr. Mukherjee was a very simple, gentle, refined and unassuming gentleman. If a difficult question occurred in anybody’s mind, people used to bring it to the notice of Mr. Mukherjee, and he would invariably answer it to their satisfaction.

   Once Mr. Subodh Ganguly, a very close acquaintance of mine, asked Mr. Mukherjee, “Well, Mr. Mukherjee, you say that monkeys are very intelligent. Why don’t they wear shirts and pants like us?”

   Mr. Mukherjee said, “It’s a very difficult question. It involves societal norms, economics and social progress. So I can answer only after I have given serious thought to it.” The next day Mr.. Mukherjee appeared with a grave look … a distressed mind ... wrinkles on his forehead.

   Everybody asked, “What’s the matter, Mr. Mukherjee? What happened?”

   Mr. Mukherjee said, “Just see! All my fun and stories have been nipped in the bud by the radio news.”

   Subodh said, “I thought that today you would answer my question. So won’t you then sit on the veranda this evening?”

   Mr. Mukherjee said, “No, today my mind is in a very bad condition. Our great government will impose taxes even on petty government officers like me. Today I am not in a position to have our session. You wait for 15 to 20 minutes alternately, and see; if I turn up, well and good; otherwise, you’ll know that I’ve gone to bed.”

   Mr. Mukherjee’s audience kept on anxiously waiting for him, like crows at a sacred place, looking all the while at the sky. But, alas, no one heard the footsteps of Mr. Mukherjee.

   Then suddenly came the sound of Mr. Mukherjee’s footsteps [and they saw his] quiet, controlled, expressionless face. The wrinkles of anxiety had vanished. With profound conviction, Mr. Mukherjee exclaimed, “Eureka! …Eureka! … Got it! … Got it!”

   All the people shouted in chorus, “What have you got Mr. Mukherjee? What have you got? Please tell us. Please!”

   Mr. Mukherjee replied, “Then hear a few secret words – very confidential, philosophical statements …”

   Some time ago, the world conference of monkeys was held in Kiskindhyánagar [the habitat of monkeys according to the Rámáyańa epic]. There some of the wise and highly qualified delegates said, “We must keep pace with the progress of civilization. Since the hoary past, a monkey is called kiisha. The word kiisha means one who has knowledge, intelligence and everything, but who does not wear trousers and coats. It is time we think seriously whether in the changed situation we should start wearing trousers and coats.”

   Many heavyweight MP’s were also present in that conference. They said, “In such serious matters as this, we should not take any decision. Rather, let us take a poll – and let us form a high-powered commission.”

   The delegates reacted in a chorus: “There is no means to know which monkey is living publicly or secretly in which part of the world and on which tree! Moreover, not all monkeys understand the language of all monkeys communities, because there are linguistic differences in each community. There is no script either…. nor is there any written literature… not a single newspaper on record. So the media used for tabulating public opinion will not be of much use. In this situation, instituting a powerful commission is sure to be very effective.”

   A powerful commission was formed, and it was resolved that everybody would be bound by the decision of the commission.

   In due course of time, the verdict of the commission was published. The commission recommended a special type of three-quarters trousers (neither half nor full) so that the tail could easily come out from between the legs. On the body, there would be a kind of nylon shirt, which would not get torn when in contact with the branch of a tree, nor would it give way when pierced by a thorn. There would be no need to send these trousers and shirts recommended by the commission to the laundry (washerman’s house) for six months. In other words, this dress would be most convenient in every respect.

   A few days after the publication of the commission’s recommendations, another conference was convened. The organizers of the conference declared, “The recommendations of the commission are definitely acceptable, but meanwhile an untoward event has taken place. After the publication of the commission’s verdict, the deputy minister of the social welfare department contacted a reliable supplier. The name of that agency is Universal Traders Company Unlimited. They were prepared to supply an unlimited quantity of clothes to all the countries of the world. They would have continued to do so, but eventually there developed a difference of opinion between the agency and the deputy minister.”

   The deputy minister told the supplier, “All the monkeys of the world will wear your clothes. So you will make a huge profit. For this you must pay me at least ten lakh rupees as selámi [bribe].”

   The clothing company replied, “If we pay you ten lakh salami, the deal will not be commercially viable. We can pay you five lakh at the most. Not a chipped cowry more! Moreover, you know that the monkey population is always on the wane, like the moon of the dark fortnight. The demand that we have today will not be there tomorrow.”

   “As a result of the haggling between the clothing company and the deputy minister, the plan of wearing cloth was abandoned.”

   All asked, “Then?”

   The President of the conference said, “Then, in private discussion with both parties, we settled it at seven and half lakh.”

   All anxiously asked in a chorus, “Then? Then?? Then???”

   The President said, “Now there is no hindrance in using the trousers and shirts made by the company; there is no reason to object either.”

   Then suddenly a young monkey M.P. (a young Turk) shouted, “ This can’t be allowed ! This can’t be allowed. Clothing not allowed! Not allowed!”

   Everybody asked, “Why? …Why?? …Why???”

   The young monkey explained, “Suppose we all wear trousers and shirts, then what will be the difference between humans and uourselves? Moreover, even the best part of the tail will remain hidden in the trousers. And therefore, the most honourable Government will not spare us. At once income tax will be imposed on us. So if we want to save ourselves from the clutches of the income tax, we’d continue to be kiisha.”

   The followers of the young monkey shouted in a chorus, “Not allowed! Not allowed!! Clothing not allowed!!! … Not allowed…Not allowed …Hoop! Hoop! Hoop!”

   “Not allowed!… … Not allowed! … This imperialist conspiracy not allowed … Not allowed! Not allowed!! Hoop! Hoop! Hoop!”

   “Not allowed!. . Not allowed!!…Pull down the mask of the conspirators!…Pull down!!…Burn their black hands. Burn! Burn!!.Burn!!! Hoop! Hoop! Hoop!”

   “Friends, brothers, unite immediately to fight against this conspiracy of the imperialists! We must be vociferous! Hoop! Hoop! Hoop!”

   “We are born as kiishas, we live as kiishas and we must die as kiishas. It is our birth right to remain kiishas. Hoop! Hoop! Hoop!.”

Footnotes

(1) The name of the district is Rajsahi; the name of the district head quarters is Rampur. Rampur is part of Boyalia. That is why it used to be called Rampur-Boyalia. Nowadays many people refer to Rampur- Boyalia as Rajsahi.

(2) Similarly the name of the district is Maldaha – the name of the district headquarters is English Bazar. Many people wrongly refer to English Bazar as Maldaha town. There is already a separate town named Maldaha which is now called Old Malda by many.

(3) The name of the district is Murshidabad – the name of the district headquarters is Berhampur.

(4) The name of the district is Birbhum – the name of the district headquarters is Suri. Formerly Rajnagar was the district head quarters.

(5) The word jádu is Persian; the word gar is also Persian. So jádugar is a Persian word. To distort into jádukar is meaningless. We can say that the word jádukar is incorrect.

Chapter 7	Shabda Cayaniká Part 4

Ku (verbal root)

Ku and kú are of quite antithetical in nature. In most words we get the use of ku only. The use of the verbal root kú is very limited. In Bengali most of the words with the prefix ku are with the short vowel; the use of long ú is very rare. In semantic terms the word ku has a very wide range of meanings; in contrast, the arena of meaning of the verbal root kú is very limited.

1. One meaning of ku is grimacing, which the monkeys and vixens do, for example.

2. The verbal root ku is also used to mean mimicking the calls of different animals.

3. The verbal root ku can also be used to express a feeling without saying a word. For example, suppose someone brings a glass of sherbet in winter. Instead of telling him “No, don’t give me the sherbet”, you simply say, uṋ-uṋ-uṋ-uṋ. This nonverbal sound will clearly indicate that you do not want the sherbet. Thus, the verbal root ku can be used for the articulation of such sounds.

4. The verbal root ku can also be used for the sound – uṋ … uṋ – which we call groaning, that is, gouṋgáni in Bengali, that a sick man or an afflicted person makes in pain.

5. The verbal root ku can also be used to mean the humming of a bee or the buzzing of a bumble bee. The fact of the matter is that neither does a bee hum nor does a bumble bee buzz. These are actually the sounds of flying. The verbal root ku has some functional uses. But more in use is the form kavate [[(the verbal root ku + lat́ [present tense] te.)]]

6. The verbal root ku is also used, more or less, in the sense of moving or making something move in the quinquelemental [physical] or mental level through a systaltic path, and also in the sense of diminution or belittling.

Ku (word)

We get the word ku by adding the suffix kvip to the verbal root ku. In most cases the word is used in feminine gender. The etymological meaning of the word ku is “mundane manifestation”. As the expression of the mind is called thought, similarly any mundane expression is called ku. In common usage ku means many things.

1. Ku is the result of the descent of the psychic entity, as it is metamorphosed into the solid factor through different stages of crudification. In other words, ku refers to each entity of the stellar world. All the luminaries – nebulae, stars, planets, satellites, meteors and comets – all belong to the category of ku. This earth, so close to us, is also ku. The word ku is an integral part of the various names of the earth.

   Bhú-bhúmi-dhará-dharitrii-sarvaḿsahá-vasumatii,
   Gotra-ku-prthivii-prthvii-kśamávanii-medinii-mahii.

   [Thirteen different names of the earth including ku.]

   The earth has many names. All the names are not equally prevalent. However, the name ku has been particularly prevalent since ancient times. In Bengali literature we have the following couplet:

   Ku-kathay paiṋcamukh kańt́he bhará biś,
   Kebal ámár sauṋge dvandva aharńish.

   While disclosing her identity, Annapurna [one name of Parvatii] describes her husband in equivocal terms: “My husband uses undesirable language with five mouths. When he speaks, one feels as if he is disgorging venom. He quarrels with me day and night.” Inherent meaning is: “For the welfare of the world, for the benefit of the denizens of the earth, my husband has been constantly advising all beings. He is so busy with different manifestations; he has to use his mouth for so many varied utterances that he has to have as many as five mouths (iishána, dakśineshvara, kálágni, vámadeva and kalyańasundara)”.

   Parama Puruśa discharges various celestial and terrestrial duties with the help of Paramá Prakrti. So He [Lord Shiva] is to remain inextricably interlinked with Paramá Prkrti … must have her company. In this state, Parama Puruśa or Parama Shiva is known as Ardhanáriishvara.⁽¹⁾ “He remains with me (with Annapurna) in every form as a copulative compound.” Hara and Gauri in the copulative compound form becomes HaraGauri, that is, Parama Puruśa andParamá Prakrti are united in an inalienable concomitance at the sweet will of Parama Puruśa.The above quoted lines are from Raygunakar Bharatchandra.

   Ku means inanimate expression, the earth or … physical expression. We get the word kula from ku; that is, we get the word kula when we add the suffix d́a to the verbal root la in connection with ku. Etymologically kula means that which holds the mundane expression.

2. In common usage, it means different modes of physical action. The physical expression of a creature expands through its progeny. So kula means “genealogy”. In this case, the la is at the initial position of the verbal root la.

   So la (here in the sense of the holder) will continue to occupy the position of the intial la. For the same reason, the word kula must be spelt with the initial la and not with end-la. That is, it will be kula and not kula [Kulra with end-la].

   The same initial la will also be used in the spelling of our familiar fruit, kula (baŕai – the jujube). The end-la can only be used in those Bengali words that retain the form of Sanskrit words or Sanskrit derived words but not in the case of indigenous words or foreign words. The word kula that we use for a special kind of fruit [jujube] is an indigenous Bengali word. So in its spelling, the initial la is used. But the word baŕai is not indigenous. It is derived from Sanskrit, badarii (badarii>baarii>baiira). Baiira/ bera/ boŕai /bor /bogŕii – all derived from one single source – badarii. So you understand that the spelling of the word kula is the same, whether it means genealogy or jujube. And you also realize that the word kula, which means genealogy, is derived from the word ku.

   Kula or jujube [Zizyphus mauritiana] grows equally well both in the equatorial zone and the tropics. In fact, it grows everywhere except in extremely cold places. So much so that the jujube tree grows even in the snow-covered regions of the Himalayas and bears fruit after the disappearance of snow. There are different kinds of jujube in different countries. The largest jujubes are available in places where the climate is warm, rainfall is little, and the soil is mixed with sand. That is why in India the large-sized jujubes of high quality are available in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and in the vicinity of Agra in Uttar Pradesh. The jujubes of Allahabad and Kashii are not bad. In Bengal there is good rainfall. So in Bengal, although there is a good jujube crop, its size or quality is not of high standard.

   The same condition is also applicable in the case of prickly trees. The place that is congenial for the good growth of jujubes is also congenial for the good growth of date palms. And like the jujube, in Bengal there is substantial date palm production but not of high quality. Even if high quality seeds of date palm are sown in Bengal, the tree growth will be good, the juice will also be very sweet, but the quality will not be good. The date palms grown in Bengal are all seed and skin, and practically without any kernel. So you understand that, like the jujube tree, the date palm tree is also a prickly plant. That is why there is similarity in the nature and behaviour of the jujube⁽²⁾ and the date palm.

   Generally trees with thorns send their roots deep into the subterranean soil, and from deep down they draw their sustenance. That is why most plants that grow in the desert are thorny. The screw pine trees (Pandanus) are also thorny. So their growth in the desert area is not that bad. Even in countries with heavy rainfall, they prefer sandy riparian soil. Even in the desert region of Gujarat I have observed the luscious growth of cacti. There are different varieties of jujube – some are very sweet and some very sour.

   The spring season is the natural time for the ripening of the jujube. As in Southeast Asia, no other fruit is easily available at that time, the jujubes enjoy a seasonal demand during this period. Probably that demand is also likely to continue. Jujube helps in digestion (dried jujube is more effective than a fresh one). Pickle made from jujube causes the secretion of saliva and therefore acts as an appetizer. Jujubes in small quantity are good for the pancreas.

   Jujube leaves are medicine for severe kinds of pox and measles (when a patient suffers from smallpox, the suppressed pox under the skin causes severe pain on the body, and the patient dies in excruciating agony). The wood of the jujube tree is very good for sports equipment. Jujube wood is also used in making fire works. In different countries jujube grows in different seasons (some in summer and others in autumn). Moreover, there are twenty seven different subspecies of jujube with radically different characteristics and shapes. In eastern India we are generally familiar with three main varieties of jujube: 1) large, longish and tasty jujube of Kashii or the coconut-jujubes; 2) round; very sour when green and sweet-sour when ripe … t́opákul; and 3) wild jujube or shiyákul [Zigyplus oenoplia, the berry grown on a wild thorny plant] carelessly grown in the wilderness. As a jackal is very fond of jambu [rose apple], so the word jambu or jambuka refers to both a jackal and a jambu. Similarly, since jujube is a favourite fruit of jackals, it is also called by another name of jackal, that is, bádara (not báṋdara or bandara). A type of non-mulberry insect is reared in the jujube tree. That is why such a plant has specific commercial value. I have personally seen lac insects reared in the jujube trees in Manbhum or Murshidabad district of Bengal. I have seen this in Thailand also.

   The kula in the compound word kulakuńd́alinii (coiled serpentine) comes from the word ku. According to Kálacakrayánatantra, the last bone at the bottom of the spine carries the weight of the entire upper portion of the spine. This bottom piece of bone is therefore called kula, that is, the la that holds ku or the solid factor. According to Tantra, the sleeping divinity is lying in this kula in the shape of a coiled serpentine. This seed that holds the solid factor is called la; in other words, la is the acoustic root of the solid factor. This coiled serpentine moves upward through mantrabodha, mantrágháta, mantracaetanya [ideation of mantra, mántrika striking or stirring of the kuńd́alinii, mántrika consciousness], with the help of the acoustic sound huḿ, and unite with Parama Shiva seated on the thousand petalled lotus in Sahasrára cakra. This is the highest form of meditation. This elevation of the coiled serpentine is called kulasádhaná. One who performs this spiritual practice becomes famous as kulasádhaka or kaola (kula + ań). This process or path of Tantra sadhana is known as kulácára. Lord Shiva, the founder of this Tantra, is therefore called mahákaola or ádi kaola [the pioneer kaola]. And the guru who teaches this sadhana is known as kulaguru.

   Nowadays many people understand the term kulaguru to mean “family preceptor”. No, kuluguru is one who is well experienced in kulasádhaná – who is siddha, that is, an expert in this discipline, and who is competent to teach the process of this kulasádhaná. Svastyayan or benedictory ceremony is a part of shántikarma of Vidyá Tantra. The part of this benedictory ceremony that is known as purascarańa is also the process of raising the coiled serpentine. According to Tantra, purascarańa is a necessary part of this [process]. There is no difference in the rituals of Shaeva, Shákta, Vaeśńava, Saora, and Gáńapatya Tantras. What is kulakuńd́alinii in Shaeva Tantra, whose goal is Parama Shiva, is called Mahákálii in Shákta Tantra, and its final aim is termed as Mahákála or Mahákaola or Nairátmashakti. And in Vaeśńava philosophy, the two are termed as Rádhá and Puruśottama Krśńa. However, in whatever way the raising of coiled serpentine or purascarańa is done, kulashakti will always remain at the bottom in the solid factor (holder of kula whose acoustic root is laḿ and which is the base of physical existence). This is the base or ádhárshilá–that is why it is also called muládhára. Its goal is also that Supreme Consciousness.

   This raising of the kulakuńd́alinii is the struggle of consciousness against crudity. Piercing through the dense darkness of crudity, consciousness rushes on towards its Supreme fulfilment. It is a struggle … a severe struggle. The acoustic root of struggle is huḿ (we say rańahuḿkár, i.e., war cry). The seed of kulakuńd́alinii is also huḿ, because it is in the raising of kulakuńd́alinii by its tail that the sumum bonum of human life lies hidden.

3. Another meaning of ku in common usage is to create obstacles to good work. The nature of a good person is:

   Maetreyii-karuńá-muditopekśáńaḿ sukha-dukha
   Puńyápuńyaviśayáńáḿ bhávanátshittaprasádanam.

   [Feelings of amity and compassion occasioned by contemplation of joys and sorrows, virtues and vices, induce a pleasant state of mind.]

   Let alone an honest person, it is the duty even of an intelligent person to arouse the feeling of amity to a person who seems to be happy. One has the feeling – “Ah, that person is quite happy … how nice … let him or her always remain happy … Happiness is so scarce in this world!” Again on seeing a person in distress one should have the feeling – “Alas, how miserable is the condition of this person! Let his or her miseries be over expeditiously … I shall also try to remove his or her misery as early as possible.”

   “Alas, what suffering an animal has to bear at the hands of cruel humans! But the animal is absolutely innocent. It is not a born enemy of the human being that if a person does not kill it, it will kill the person, just as a tiger or an insect does. I shall continuously make efforts to see that human beings refrain from such cruel acts of violence.” If one sees someone doing noble work, as a result of which the progress of the world is accelerated and the path of human welfare is widened, then one should think: “The noble work of this person will remain written in letters of gold in human history. I shall give my full support to this person in their noble endeavours ... I shall help them in every possible way.”

   If one sees a person engaged in deleterious activity, then one should think: “On account of the pernicious activities of this person, people are going to the dogs, this person is striking at the root of long-cherished austerities, forbearance, benevolence, and so on. I shall never support such misdeeds.”

   There are people, however, who have opposite feelings. They burn in envy to see someone happy, and make an all out effort to put them in danger. On seeing someone in distress, they think: “Rightly served. As you sow, so you reap. Let their troubles augment.” Such human-shaped animals are prowling about in many fields of life, including the field of politics.

   There are some people who, on seeing someone engaged in noble work, try to stop that person; for example, when someone belonging to the opposite camp is trying to help the neglected, downtrodden, people badly hit by famine or flood, they think that [through their philanthropic acts] their adversaries may become popular, and so they must be opposed. There are people who, on seeing someone engaged in harmful activity or malevolent endeavours, encourage them in crude, bestial activities so that they can directly exploit the opportunity for their own benefit.

4. The act of reducing something large to a small size, or to bring a big issue into a smaller perspective is called hrasviikarańa (hras + bun + lyut́ and ii). For example, mánava>mánavaka; dolá>dolaka (pendulum); d́hola>d́holaka [tom-tom]; nala>nolaka [nose-ring]; mádala>máduli; river>rivulet; man>mankin; arm>armlet; similarly words like bracelet, hamlet, hutment, etc. are formed. From dviipa we have dviiparaka (dviiparaka>diiaraa>diiárá>diirá> diiyara); from batsa, batsaruka (batsaruka> baccharua>bacharu>bácharu>báchura ); from mátr, mátrká (mátrká>máttiá>máiá>meye ). This diminution of an object is also called ku.

5. Many of you must know that the transgression of the code of Dharma is called pápa (sin) and transgression of the social code is called aparádha (guilt or crime). The word pápa is used both in the general sense and the specific sense. In the general sense, pápa means pátaka. Pátaka means offence against Dharma. This pátaka has two branches – one branch is known as pápa. To do what one should not do is pápa, and not to do what one should do is called pratyaváya. Both pápa and pratyaváya are undesirable. But the sages and ascetics of ancient times used to say that pratyaváya is more detestable than pápa. There are three different degrees of pátaka – 1) pátaka, 2) atipátaka, and 3) mahápátaka.

   That [pápa] which can be nullified with slight effort, sacrifice or expiation is called pátaka in common usage. Suppose someone has stolen two hundred rupees from another person. If they return that money to the owner with interest and pay something over and above it, and at the same time ask for forgiveness, then that common pátaka is expiated. To wound someone’s feelings is also this kind of pátaka. If someone hurts a person and then begs his forgiveness … repeatedly requests forgiveness, and if that person sincerely forgives him, then it may be presumed that the pátaka has been expiated.

   Atipátaka means that kind of sin, the expiation of which calls for severe austerities and physical suffering. If, for example, your mistake causes someone a great loss or ruins his future then that will also be a great sin. Normally there is no expiation for such a sin. But, if you devote yourself completely in your life-long efforts to help them by making amends, and the person forgives you from the core of their heart, then one may consider that expiation has been effected. But it does not really happen, because, can a person to whom you have caused permanent damage really forgive you from the core of their heart? In history we come across many such acts of great sin. The manner in which Ajatashatru killed his father, Bimbisara, was an act of great sin. Shashanka killed Rajyavardhana, who was his invited guest. That was also an act of great sin. The way in which Harsavardhana killed Jayashankarii, wife of Shashanka, and their minor son was also an act of great sin.

   The worst kind of sin is called mahápátaka. The fundamental difference between atipátaka and mahápátaka is that the sight of an act of great sin like atipátaka does not tempt others to commit such sins. It is also possible that the people will not remember the event. However, the worst sins are those that leave a permanent scar on society and human history with recurring consequences ... Had Ravana simply abducted Sita, that would have been a great sin. But, masquerading as an ascetic, Ravana first gained the confidence of Sita and then treacherously abducted her. Ravana came in the guise of an ascetic and then became a thief. This has a recurring consequence. Even today, on seeing an ascetic, a housewife may be afraid that, who knows, like Ravana, that man may be actually thief in the guise of an ascetic!

   The other branch of pátaka is pratyaváya, which means not to do what should be done: for example, properly educating the child; taking measures so that they can be independent and self-sufficient. One should give a daughter in marriage when she comes of age (but if an educated or self-sufficient daughter does not agree to marry, that is a different matter). One should gratefully remember the good one has received from any benefactor. One should follow the path of Dharma. If one refuses to abide by these “shoulds” – if one indulges in the opposite of these in action, thought or words – then one has committed pratyaváya. It does not matter whether it is pápa or pratyváya, the fact is that whenever something assumes a condemnable dimension, one uses the word ku for it.

6. Any violation of the accepted code of conduct is generally called a crime. A community or a state stands on certain codes. When these codes are related to the administration of the state, then it is called a constitution. When it is related to governance or justice, then it is called law. An unconstitutional or anti-constitutional act is regarded as a crime in every state. That is why an act of violation of the constitution or law is called a crime. But apart from certain cardinal human principles, there are always different views regarding various matters in different communities. This is the reason why in different communities or states there are differences in the structure of the constitution, the legislative, administrative and judicial systems. So, one has to conform to the constitutional, social, legal and administrative systems of the country in which one lives at a particular point in time; otherwise one is liable for punitive action.

   If we continue to expand the few fundamental human principles that we have, and accordingly revise the constitutional, administrative and legal systems of different countries, then it will lead to better prospects for human unity. Then humanism and Neo-humanism will receive an impetus to accelerate the speed of their progress, which is a major requirement of its journey [towards unity]. If we gradually increase the fundamental unity of human beings and simultaneously reduce the apparent points of difference, the universal humanity will certainly become one and indivisible some day. This is not a visionary dream – it will be the first indication of human wisdom in reality. In any case, the word ku can be used for whatever is considered a crime or culpability in any particular place.

7. There are activities that provoke, as a reaction, a filthy sensation in the body or mind of a person. This induces in them a desire to stay away from such activities, and creates in them a mentality of over-reaction against such activities. This reactionary mentality is called ghrńá or hatred. Hatred is an imposed psychic bondage. So it is a kind of pásha [eight types of external fetters]. What originates in the mind and expands to the external world is called ripu [six inherent bondages]. That which originates outside and influences the mind is called pásha, as told earlier. An intelligent person keeps his or her ripu in control and fights the páshas.

   The sages and ascetics do not recommend any mechanism for opposing the ripus, because if a particular ripu is repressed, it tries to find an outlet through another ripu. The same is true about the remaining of ripus (lust, anger, greed, attachment, pride and jealousy). If the propensity of greed is strong in a person and they are compelled to control it under the pressure of poverty – for example, if a person who used to take bribes is compelled to refrain from taking bribes due to pressure from law enforcement authorities–their greed will find expression through anger or some other ripu; that is, they will burst into a rage.

   So the recommended psychological stance is that a ripu must be kept under control, and under no circumstances should it be allowed to run counter to the society or to societal norms. Suppose someone has a strong weakness for eating. Overeating or eating prohibited food can naturally lead to sickness or premature death. So that person restrains their greed in such a manner that their greed is satisfied and at the same time potential disease is prevented. Suppose someone addicted to drink has become a slave of liquor under its strong influence. If they can sublimate their alcohol addiction into a passion for music or painting or any other finer art, then their passion will be satisfied without any injury to themselves.

   Regarding the pashas, the wise people of ancient times expressed their strong conviction that the páshas [imposed bondages of the mind – fear shame, doubt etc.] must be opposed. To fight fear, for example, one must move quickly towards the very source of that fear, equipped with necessary physical and psychological weapons. If you remain confined in your cloister, fearfully barring the door, the fear will make its way into your mind and there take root. Then the bondage of fear can never be thrown off. So always remember that ripus [inborn enemies – lust, angers, greed attachment, vanity and jealousy] must be controlled and páshas [bondages] must be opposed. The endeavour to be liberated from the páshas is a step forward in human expansiveness – an ascent towards human glory and excellence. Páshobaddho bhavejjibo páshamukto bhavecchivah [Bound by pásha is the jiiva, liberated from bondage is Shiva].

   Your psychological reaction to a person’s behaviour or action that creates pásha or provokes ripu is called hatred. Since hatred is also a type of pásha, and it must be opposed through reasoning and intellect. The word ku can be used for this hatred.

8. Petty thoughts give birth to mean behaviour. And mean action is the result of mean behaviour. So a person who does not want to be the perpetrator of any mean deed must maintain restraint in their behaviour and integrity in their thought. That is why the savants and sages of every age and every country have laid enormous emphasis on good behaviour and good thoughts. Good behaviour and good thoughts are regarded as the fundamental human principles. If an honest person always keeps the company of a dishonest person then the honest person’s thoughts are bound to degenerate under the influence of bad company. As a result of this degeneration of thought, they can or do wrong things. That is why wise people give so much importance to satsauṋga, that is, good company. In Tantra, special importance has been given to satsauṋga:

   Satsauṋgena bhavenmuktirasatsauṋgeśu bandhanam;
   Asatsauṋgamudranaḿ yá sá mudrá parikiirtitá.

   [Good company brings liberation, while bad company causes bondage … to discard bad company is termed as mudrá.]

   The word ku can be used for the following mental actions: To belittle oneself with petty thoughts, to confine oneself to narrow ideas, to put a blot on human history, etc.

9. Suppose someone has been carrying on a noble enterprise. If a wall of obstruction is raised to arrest its progress, then that insurmountable wall of obstruction is also called ku.

10. Suppose someone is urged on by a noble idea. In that case, if innumerable hindrances are created on some pretext or the other, or the person is discouraged, or vigorous efforts are made to turn that person into a materialist with a misleading philosophy, or the benevolent spirit is suppressed, then all such deceitful deeds are called ku.

Kuka

The word kuka is formed by adding the suffix ka, or according to some, ac to the verbal root kuk. We get the word koka by adding the suffix ghaiṋa to the verbal root kuk. The meaning of the verbal root kuk is to take something after picking it up. So the etymological meaning of the word kuka is one who accepts something after picking it up or takes something which has already been picked up. In common usage kuka means the following:

A cook. The cook picks up the vegetables from below [from the floor], cooks them in various utensils, and after the dish is ready, takes it down from the stove and keeps it nearby. That is why kuka means “a cook”. In this case, the proximity of the relationship between the word kuka and the English word ́cook’ should be especially noted.

Since in ancient times the husband used to take the bride from her father’s hands after she was formally given to the bridegroom, one meaning of the word kuka in common usage is “the husband”. The second meaning of the word kuka is the conjugal relationship between husband and wife – (jáyá-pati>jampati>dampati ).

Kukabha

The word kukabha is formed by adding the suffix bha and then the suffix d́a to the word kuka . Etymologically, kukabha means something, on seeing which a person picks it up from the ground with great delight. In common usage kukabha means a type of wine which the vámácárii tantikas used while practicing some of their rites. In the ordinary sense, kukabha means the wine that makes one besotted with intoxication after drinking just a small quantity.

Kukara

Ku + kara = kukara. Kara means hand. Kukara means dirty hand. In common usage, kukara means a person who is always engaged in nefarious activities – one who uses his or her hands for doing dirty jobs and does not hesitate even to commit murder (a murderer, a goon). In common usage, kukara also means a blunt weapon. Kukara also means a mad elephant.

Kukuda

Kuk + un + dá + d́a = kukuda. Kukuda means one who first picks up an object and then gives it away. In common usage kukuda means the person who ceremonially gives away the daughter according to the scriptural custom. In ancient times there were various marriage customs.

Of those customs – shaeva, gándharbha, rákśasii, etc. – one custom was as follows: The bride wearing ornaments would remain seated in a squatting fashion on a low wooden seat; the guardian of the bride would pick her up along with the wooden seat and give her away to the bridegroom, who would receive her as a gift. The person presenting the gift was called kukuda, that is, one who gives away [the bride after picking her up]. The one who received the gift was called koka, that is, the one who accepts the offered bride as a gift. This marriage custom where the daughter is ceremonially given away is still prevalent among high-caste people. This custom is humiliating for women. Is a woman a commodity like rice, pulse, salt or oil that I pick her up and hand her over to someone? Is a woman a hen or okra that I pack her up in a sack and sell her or give her away? The custom is not only humiliating for women; it also drags the dignity of humanity down to dust. It violates the basic principles of humanism and also Neo-Humanism. I request all rational-minded people of the world to give serious thought to this issue and try their best to abolish this odious custom. I would say that it was not proper for Manu to support this custom.

Kukubhá

Kuka + bhá + d́a + t́á = kukubhá. Etymologically kukubhá means “that which seems to be adapted”. In common usage it means a rágińii [mode of Indian classical music] that has been roughly adapted. Suppose you hear a song. You at once realize in which particular mode of tune it has been rendered. But you have not yet been able to familiarize yourself with the distinctive details of the song’s technical aspects – its rise and fall, the style of the kheyál [elaborate classical song], its elaboration, intermediary and final development. In this situation you cannot properly render the song on the basis of your rough idea. This rough idea of the musical mode of a particular rágińii is called kukubhá. After hearing a song once or twice you can say, “I have understood the kukubhá of the song; but I have not yet been able to fully familiarize myself with it.”

Kukura

Kuk + urac = kukura. Etymologically kukura means “one who by nature picks up anything in its path”.

1. In common use it means a sárameya [dog]. According to Puranic legend the Head of the Security Department of Yamarája [god of death] in hell is a bitch. The name of this particular bitch is Saramá. We get the word sárameya by adding the suffix sneya to the word saramá in the affectionate sense. The word sárameya stands for any dog, the entire dog community, in fact. That is why I have told you umpteen times before that no one should name their daughter Saramá. Someone may say, “The name of the wife of Bibhiisana, brother of Ravana in the Rámáyana, was Saramá. So what is the problem of naming one’s daughter Saramá?” In answer to that, it can only be pointed out that Saramá of Rámáyańa was a demon, not a woman.

2. The second meaning of kukura in common usage refers to that branch of the Yadu dynasty which, due to intellectual impairment, was led astray onto the path of adharma [non-Dharma] and later was destroyed at the sacred place of Prabhása (Muśalparva of the Mahábhárata). The branch of the Yadu dynasty that comprised the descendants of the children born from the marriage of Aniruddha and Uśá, daughter of king Váńa, followed the path of Dharma and finally gained a good reputation in the world. In any case, according to the Purana, the branch of the Yadu dynasty that followed the path of adharma was called the kukura branch in Sanskrit. And those who followed the path of Dharma came to be known afterwards as yádavas.

3. There are some plants, the leaves or the juice of which are fragrant, namely, hiuṋgu (hiḿ, asafoetida), nágadrońii (nágadońa) [Artemisia vulgrus], parńamadhurii (pána maorii), madhurii (maorii, that is, aniseed), rocanii (pudiná, that is, spearmint), dhányaka (dhane, that is, coriander-seed), etc.

4. Another meaning of the word kukura is any perfume distilled from a fragrant object and preserved in a container, for example, iitr (it is better not to call it átar in Bengali), scent, essence, rose water, water scented with pandanus flower, etc.

5. Another meaning of the word kukura is desha [country]. In this case, however, the word is used in masculine plural, that is, kukurah ( the plural form of the word nara)

6. In a limited sense, kukura also means transported fire.

7. The word kukkura is also used in the sense of kukura. The word kukkura is formed by adding the suffix urań to the verbal root kuk. In it there is an additional ka. Some call the suffix kurańa as well. The word kukur is prevalent both in Bengali and in Bhojpuri. The word is used in its original Sanskrit form. In Punjabi it is called kukkar. This word is derived from Sanskrit. Again, according to some, the original Sanskrit word is kukkura, and kukura is the Prákrta form [spoken form] or the grhita Sanskrit form [word from another language accepted in Sanskrit].

   According to some zoologists, a dog is not an original species [sui generis]; it is a hybrid creature. As the Royal Bengal Tiger of the Sunderbans and the domestic cat are respectively the biggest and the smallest members of the cat family, similarly the African lion and the vixen (meteor-faced, kikhi), according to some, are respectively the biggest and the smallest members of the dog family.

   According to some scholars, a dog is a hybrid of the wolf and the vixen. In ancient times wild dogs were rather scarce, precisely for the same reason. There is hardly any dog fossil amongst the available fossils of ancient animals. Nowadays, however, wild dogs are also prevalent. These wild dogs live gregariously in jungles, and even a gigantic tiger has been seen to be flabbergasted and killed by a concerted attack of these dogs.

   Although a dog is a hybrid of the wolf and the vixen, it must be said that there are many radical, extreme differences between a wolf and a dog. A wolf is voracious, but a dog feels satisfied with a small meal. It is difficult to tame a wolf, but a dog loves to be domesticated. A dog is extremely faithful and loyal to its master. A wolf is neither faithful nor loyal to its master. A dog is not ferocious by nature. It attacks or frightens someone as part of its duty. A wolf is ferocious by nature. It has no sense of duty. A dog would not normally kill a creature if its stomach were full. But a wolf, even when its belly is full, kills a creature. If it has no capacity to eat it, it carries the carcass to its den and eats it according to its convenience. Dogs do not generally fight with other members of the dog family. They fight with members of the feline family. But a wolf does not observe any such principle. A wolf avoids the strong and unnecessarily attacks the weak. Although there is a family resemblance between the wolf and the dog, whenever a dog is sighted the wolf attacks and kills it.

   There are many differences between a jackal and a dog. A dog generally moves about during the daytime. But jackals are night prowlers by nature. A jackal moves in the daytime only when it is in danger, it has to change locations or is excessively hungry. A jackal lives in a hole, but a dog never likes to live in a hole. It prefers to live in the open. A jackal cannot be tamed; but a dog can. By virtue of being night prowlers, the jackals periodically howl in chorus to preserve their solidarity and register their presence. However, dogs do not have this habit. They bark collectively only when they have to fight an enemy as a body. Although both jackals and dogs belong to the canine family, a dog chases a jackal whenever it sees one. A jackal runs away at the sight of a dog. By nature a dog is brave and a jackal is cowardly.

   The Alsatian dogs are close relatives of foxes. The dogs of Bhutan, although not cowardly, closely resemble jackals in cold countries.

   Although a fox belongs to the dog family, its relation with the dog is very remote. In spite of some similarity between a dog and a jackal in appearance, there is a wide gulf of difference in their natures.

   The dog has been a companion of human beings since ancient times. History tells us that dogs have been of use and continue to be of use to people in different ways in their prosperity as well as in their adversity. In the scriptures, a dog has sometimes been shown respect by presenting it as a symbol of dharma. Of course, there is no dearth of people who are opposed to dogs. In northern India some people say: “Only one who is a dog himself maintains a dog.” In Hindi and Urdu kukura [a dog] is called kuttá.

Kuk + kvip + kut́ + ka = kukkut́a. Etymologically it means that which picks up something after repeatedly pecking at it. In common usage it means the following:

1. A wild cock.

2. A big domestic cock.

3. A child whose father is a touchable outcaste and whose mother is an untouchable outcaste.

4. Kukkut́a also means transported fire. Suppose you take a sheaf of hay, light it from the hearth and then carry that flaming sheaf to light another hearth or a lamp. The flame of fire carried by the hay is called transported fire. One meaning of kukkut́a is transported fire.

5. Suppose there are a number of thatched houses in a row. Somehow one house catches fire. Then, wafted by the wind or through a spark, that fire can spread to other adjoining houses. This fire which is transported by wind or a spark is also called kukkut́a.

6. Objects which are made through the process of burning are also called kukkut́as. Examples are: a brick, a pitcher, an urn-shaped pot, tiles, a pitcher with a narrow neck, shallow earthen plate, etc. If kukkut́a is made kukkut́ii by adding ii to it, then it can mean many other things.

7. In common usage kukkut́a refers to a sanctimonious person [Vak dhármik] feigning virtousness, keeps a vigil on who touches what, and who skips about while walking lest they by chance touch something untouchable. Such a person, who is always watchful regarding the possible lapses of anyone in observing scriptural edicts, is called kukkut́ii. For example, “Lo and behold, I have seen it with my own eyes – how disgraceful it is really – a Brahmin girl drinking from a pot full of water without bringing the vessel in contact with her mouth on ekádashii day [fasting day]. Really, what a detestable sight!”

   If somebody carps, “Well sister, you also drink water on ekádashii, don’t you?” She would at once reply, “True, I drink, but that’s a different matter. I drink because if I don’t drink water my throat feels parched. But then, must the whole world drink water on ekádashii? Alas, alas, it’s now all gone by the board! Lost, lost, all is lost!” This kind of mentality is called kukkut́ii mentality.

8. When spelt as kukkut́ii, another meaning of kukkut́a is the difference between appearance and reality, in other words hypocrisy.
    

   While talking about kukkut́ii, I am reminded of an incident. I have preserved the memory of that incident under the heading “Kamal Means Guernsey”. It happened a long time ago. Since then much water has flown down the Ganges into the Bay of Bengal. I have completely forgotten the exact date and time. But I vaguely remember that it was a Pauś [winter time] evening, and I had gone to attend a function held by an aristocratic family. It was the day when the newlywed bride was to ritualistically have lunch at her in-law’s place for the first time. The marriage was held in the month of Agraháyańa [eighth month of the Bengali calendar] but the bride’s rice-eating ceremony was held in the month of Pauś. Do you know why? At the time, when the marriage was held in the month of Agraháyańa, it was near the end of an English month. The Kolkata babus’ pockets were absolutely empty; no money in the purse, no money in the bank! So the master of the house, that is, the father of the bridegroom thought, if invited at that time, the guests would not come in shame, due to not having money to buy suitable presents or any present at all for that matter. Moreover, the guests who would come would bring cheap gifts. So, keeping the salary aspect in mind, the master of the house invited his guests in the month of Pauś. I reached the wedding house in the Pauś evening. I also had to buy a present by borrowing money from different sources. The invitation card carried the inscription: “Food will be served strictly in accordance with Government Guest Control Regulations.”

   I thought that even though people write like this, in practice they would serve rádháballabhii⁽³⁾ instead of luci⁽⁴⁾ to one’s bellyful, because a rádháballabhi does not come under the purview of the relevant regulations!

   Anyway, what could I do? I was just sitting idle and biding my time ... There was no leaf of any tree in sight so that I could count the leaves. So I was just listening with rapt attention to the colourful talk going on around me. The ladies had come to show off their saris and ornaments. Their discussions were confined mainly to saris and ornaments. The gentlemen were discussing diverse topics. We were all seated, however, the handsome young man who was shining amidst us like the full moon kept on standing. Many people asked him to sit down, but he said, “Don’t worry, I’m fine.” He kept on standing, possibly because in the standing position the glamour of his suit would be more prominent. If he sat down he would not be able to highlight the glamour of his dress. Many people were admiringly staring either at his coat or his trousers, and some had their eyes glued unashamedly to his clothes. One callow youth could not resist his indecent curiosity, and asked, “Sir, from where did you buy such a beautiful coat?”

   The handsome young man said, “So you have noticed it! Then listen. It is about twelve years now. I had just got possession of my feudal estate from the clutches of the Court of Wards⁽⁵⁾ that had been trying to grab it. At that time I was so happy that I felt as light as air.”

   “I left for New York, thinking I would enjoy myself there. I stayed in an abhijáta⁽⁶⁾ [aristocratic] locality. In that locality the price of everything was twice the normal price, sometimes two and a half times, sometimes even more. It seemed as if the locality was telling everybody, ́Come, squander your money here.’ The shopkeepers of that place were always in the pink, because the customers there won’t ever haggle. They would pay whatever they were asked. Many would not ask for the receipt and others would refuse to take it, even if given. The question of returning the change just did not arise. I also lived in this high style. Many Lords were confounded by my behaviour, which also turned the heads of many Barons. Once I went to a shop and asked for the best trousers that they had. They showed me one; it was really good. I asked, ‘What’s the price?’”

   “They said, ́Twenty thousand rupees, sir’. (Twenty thousand rupees at that time would mean eight hundred fifty thousand now.)”

   “I said, ́Such beautiful stuff and so cheap … oh my God!’ I at once took it. These are those trousers, do you understand? I am not sitting, because if I sit, the creases will be disturbed ... the ironing will be spoilt.”

   The young stripling stared confusedly. He was dumbfounded; only his lips were shaking slightly.

   The handsome young man resumed, “Then I told them to show me a good cut of coat. They showed me one. I asked, ́What’s the price?’ They said, ́Thirty thousand’. Of course they quoted the price in US dollars.”

   “I wondered, Thirty thousand!”

   “They had already become familiar with my generous temperament. At the time of my buying the trousers, they got an idea of how open-handed a spendthrift I was.”

   “They made a concession, ́Sir, for you we can make it twenty-eight thousand’.”

   “I said, ́Oh no, no, no! Why should you take the trouble for me? I am grateful to you for the gesture you have shown in agreeing to sell it for twenty eight thousand. I’ll pay you two thousand in gratitude, and I’ll make out a cheque for thirty-two thousand and buy it right now.’ I gave just as I said. This is that coat.”

   The greedy, hobbledehoy young man kept on gazing in wonder. After some time, when his eyes became dazed by the glamour of the coat, he closed them. I was also marveling while listening to their conversation and looked at his suit feeling like a veritable peasant. There is no harm in telling the truth. I was wondering who this handsome young man could be. Once I thought he was possibly the son of some nawab. Then it dawned on me that the age of nawabs has long since passed. Their sun has set forever. Then who is this person? Who is he? My mind said, “Haven’t you recognized him yet? He must be some deputy minister.” I said to my mind, “Oh mind, you are right. The day that automobiles replaced elephants and horses was the day that deputy ministers replaced nawabs and emperors. Just a revised and enlarged edition of the same thing.”

   It was now time for dinner. We all took our seats as usual. The additional minister also had no choice but to sit. Taking a great risk of spoiling the ironing of the trousers, he sat very carefully. As some people drink water from a small pitcher without any direct physical contact, similarly the deputy minister sat in a delicate manner.⁽⁷⁾ No, the master of the house strictly followed the printed inscription on the invitation card. The dinner plate was very light. Possibly that is the reason why it is called light refreshment in English (light refreshment – to restore the mood in a light manner). As I looked around, I felt that the amount of interest that could be accrued on the price of the gifts was enough to recover the cost of the light refreshment. The value of the gifts would be an additional gain. Thank God, while leaving my house I had told my cook to prepare for me boiled rice and a broth of wax gourd. I now realized I had done the right thing. I must eat on my return; otherwise the whole night I will feel the sharp pangs of hunger. What I ate settled silently in a solitary corner of my stomach. No belching, no feeling of surfeit. While returning, the additional minister came to my mind several times. However, after coming back home I had my rice and wax gourd broth and went to sleep happily.

   These warm trousers I have been using for the last twelve years. Just below the right hand pocket, it has become torn. I thought of giving it to the laundry today itself and asking the owner of the cleaning shop if they could get it darned by an expert. I have noticed for the last few days that a new dyeing-cleaning shop has opened near my house. Its name is shuciishubhra dhaotanilaya [the house of cleaning pure white]. I thought, let me go there. My clothes will be safe in the local laundry. I reached the shop. The owner was quite a gentleman – simple, and amiable in conversation. On enquiry I learnt that the name of the gentleman was Sri Elebele Albam. I shared our joys and sorrows with Mr Album for some time. Like me, he was also from a middle-class family. He was talking about the business of dyeing and cleaning. He said one could get fabulously rich in Europe if one ran this business properly, because although the wage of the washerman is high there, the ingredients for washing are cheap and of high quality. Things are not like that here. Washing is not good, and on top of it clothes are often spoilt. The gentleman was saying that here most of the laundry owners serve their customers after getting the washing done by washermen for a lump sum payment. Most dyeing-cleaning shops cannot afford to get the clothes washed with their own labour. After making payment to the washermen, very little [profit] margin is left in their hands. He was saying that in those European countries, the dyeing cleaners also make a substantial earning by lending high quality clothes. In this country the scope for this is also very limited.

   I said, “Your words are absolutely true, literally.” The gentleman said, “In this country people send clothes to the laundry under two circumstances. First, those who must have their clothes washed quickly within a specified period of time. Second, those who cannot trust unknown washermen with their clothes. They consider the laundry much safer. So they give their clothes to the laundry.”

   The gentleman was saying that everything has a good side and a bad side. In other countries there are washing machines for washing the clothes. In India there is practically no use of this. So most people in other countries wash clothes themselves instead of sending them to the laundry. This puts the laundry owners at a disadvantage. But in India one has to wash clothes by hand. So busy people don’t find sufficient time or leisure to wash their clothes. Consequently they have to depend on the laundry. Moreover for ultra modern scientific cleaning, people of India as well as other countries have to come to the laundry. But as I said, all things considered, it is not a profitable business.

   Our talk was rolling along smoothly. Then suddenly I saw the deputy minister from the previous evening arriving at the laundry all by himself. Possibly he had parked his car at a distance. In his hands were the costly coat and trousers we had seen the previous day. He handed in the coat and the trousers to Mr. Album and gave him a fresh currency note of ten rupees. I glanced for a moment at the deputy minister, but could not find any glamour in his figure. Possibly because he was not in those trousers and coat, his glamour had diminished to some extent. I could not see yesterday’s lustre in his face or flicker in his eyes. I imagine he had perhaps overeaten yesterday, and as a result of indigestion had fifty bilious belches. That might have made him a bit weak and lack-lustre. But how could he eat so much? He could eat that much only if he were served a lot. Anyway, after the deputy minister left I asked Mr. Album, “ Did you take an advance for washing his clothes?”

   He said, “By no means. I take payment towards washing charges only after I hand over the washed clothes.”

   I asked, “Then why did you take an advance from him?”

   Mr. Album said, “He owed me twelve rupees. After much haggling it was fixed at ten. So he gave me that ten rupees now.”

   I asked, “Is the gentleman very rich? Where does he live? What is his name?”

   He said, “He lives in Howra’s Bá…Bá …Bá…Bá …”

   I said, “You mean Baje Shibpur of Howrah?”

   He said, “Yes.”

   I said, “But you have not told me his name.”

   Mr. Album said, “As far as I know his name is Akalmand Singh.”

   I asked, “Is he very rich?”

   Mr. Album said, “I don’t know whether he is very rich, but he haggles too much.”

   I asked, “How so?”

   Mr. Album said, “Yesterday he was to attend an invitation. He came to me to borrow a good pair trousers and a good coat. I charge rupees six per piece, so that is, rupees twelve in all. After much hassle it was fixed at ten. Today while paying those ten rupees he asked , ́Won’t nine rupees do?’ I refused. So most reluctantly he coughed up ten rupees. But please remember it is our trade secret … please keep it to yourself and don’t tell anybody about it.”

   I asked, “Do you know what he does?”

   Mr. Album said, “I don’t know exactly, but I presume he runs a shanty shop of puffed rice and deep fried snacks, in Baje Shibpur.”

   I asked, “How do you know that he runs a shop of fried snacks?”

   Mr. Album said, “Didn’t you notice the stains of burnt oil on every one of his clothes – long loin cloth, shirt and cotton napkin?”
    

Kuccha

Ku + cha + ka (according to some, d́a) = kuccha. Ku means the earth, cha, in the sense of chanati or áccháditam = kuccha. Etymologically kuccha means “that which covers the earth beautifully”. In common usage kuccha means the white water lily and the white kahlar flower (a smaller variety of water lily, also known as dhyaṋáper phul or bhet́er phul in Bengali). In Sanskrit literature the word kuccha is used in descriptions of the beauty of the rainy season. The word can be used in this sense in Bengali as well.

Kuja

Ku + jan + d́a = kuja. Etymologically kuja means that which is born from the earth. In common usage, kuja means:

1. “Planet mars”. In ancient times, when the earth was a ball of fire or when the surface was either fluid or very soft, part of the earth was ejected and thrown at a distance; then, instead of revolving around the earth as a satellite, it started revolving around the sun. Since this planet was born from the earth it was named kujagraha. At present this planet kuja is known as Mars. Mars has two satellites of its own – Deimos (demon) and Phobos (fear). According to many, another celestial body was born out of the mass ejected from the earth. The remaining depression left [in the earth’s surface] resulted in the present Pacific Ocean. This celestial body, however, has been moving around the earth and is known at present as the moon. So the Sanskrit word for the Pacific Ocean is kśiirasamudra or kśiirárńava [ocean of thickened milk]. The special hymn for the moon contains the following verse :

   Divyashauṋkhatuśárabhaḿ kśiirodárńavasambhabam,
   Namámi shashinaḿ bhaktyá shambhormukut́abhúśańam.

   [I devotionally salute the moon that is snow-white like the divine conch, who is born out of the Pacific Ocean and who is an ornament in the crown of Lord Shiva.]

   In common parlance Mars is no longer referred to as kuja but in astrology there is profuse use of it. You must have occasionally noticed in the almanac – Shańi rájá Kuja mantrii [“Saturn is the king; Mars is the minister.”]

2. Another meaning of the word kuja is a kind of water vessel, which is known as kuṋjo in Bengali. The word kuṋjo, which is derived from Sanskrit, might have come from the word kuiṋja or it might also have come from kubja.

3. In feminine gender (kujá – like the word latá) one meaning of the word is Parvatii or the daughter of the mountain.

4. In feminine gender another meaning of the word kuja (that is kujá) is Sita, wife of Rama. According to Puranic legend, King Janaka, while tilling the soil, found Sita, safely secured in an eggshell and brought her up as his daughter. That is why Sita is known as the daughter of the earth or kuja.

   The word siita means land that has been cultivated. Asiita means land, which has not been cultivated, that is, fallow land. The feminine form of the word siita is siitá.You should not write the word siita with a short i, because sita means “white”, and a-sita means “that which is not white”, in other words, black. The feminine of sita is sitá. This means a white feminine object; in common usage it means sugar. Since sugar is white, it is also called sitá.

   Dadhi madhuraḿ madhu madhuraḿ, drákśá madhurá sitá’pi madhuraeva,
   Tasya tadeva hi madhuraḿ yasya manah yatra saḿlagnam.

   [Yogurt is sweet, honey is sweet, grapes are sweet, sweet also is sugar, but one whose mind is engrossed in its ideal is sweeter than all these.]

   The words sita and sharkará belong to the same category. It is from the word sharkará that we get words like shakkar, sháṋkhara, saccaharine, sucre, sugar, etc.

Kum + jan + d́a = kuiṋja. Some may think that in this case the consonantal ma is the end-phoneme of a word. No, that is not true. In this case ma is an inflectional form, as in gam + gá = gauṋgá. Here the consonantal ma is an inflectional form and not the verbal terminal ma. Since it is not a terminal ma, the word kuiṋja must be spelt with the fifth letter, that is iṋ, just as gauṋgá must be written with uṋ. I have noticed that in northern and western Indian languages, attempts are made to spell kuiṋja and gauṋgá with m. This is not proper. Etymologically kuiṋja means something that is born or grown from the earth and remains there. In common usage kuiṋja means the following:

1. Tree. A tree is called mahiiruha because it shoots up from the earth. Another name is kuiṋja. A cluster of plants or creepers is also called kuiṋja.

2. The second meaning of kuiṋja is a mountain, hill, knoll, hillock or mound. If there is a range of hills, then the word kuiṋja cannot fully express the meaning – one must say then, parvata kuiṋja – a range of mountains or hills.

3. While constructing a house, one has to first lay the foundation and then gradually move up, building the ground floor, the first floor, the second floor, third floor, and so on. So another meaning of the word kuiṋja is house, particularly the kind of house having multiple, dispersed rooms. In other words, you can easily use the word kuiṋja for a sprawling house that is spread out over a large area.

4. A keṋco/kaiṋcukii/mahiilatá (an earthworm) builds a house of earth and creates a shade and a cover with the help of the earth on its body. So one name of keṋco is mahiilatá. Thus kuiṋja also means an earthworm. In some parts of eastern India an earthworm is called cerá, and in some parts, joṋk. The regions where an earthworm is called joṋk, the actual joṋk, the blood-sucking joṋk (jalaoká – jalauká – jaloká [leech]) is called bhaeśá-joṋk. A cluster of leeches is collectively described as kuiṋja.

5. You must have seen a centipede. This small creature born out of the earth or dwelling in the earth is called kenno in the dialect of Kolkata. In Hooghly region it is called kennui; in Burdwan, kyandai. In some parts of Midnapore I have heard it called kyandrai. This centipede is also called kuiṋja. The word kuiṋja has degenerated into kenno.

6. A small insect, about one inch long or slightly longer, is sometimes seen during the rainy season in the countryside, a little away from the city. It has some width also. It has a soft body…blackish at the back…whitish on the lower side. In some parts of the country side of Hooghly and Burdwan it is called pet́o. The word kuiṋja also means a pet́o.

7. Hair grows under the skin and then pushes its way up, and grows accordingly. The tip of the hair does not grow. That is why hair, and particularly a tuft of hair, is called kuiṋja.

Kuiṋja + ra + d́a = kuiṋjara. Kuiṋja means something that appears to shoot up from under the earth. In common usage Kuiṋjara means the following:

1. A tusker [a tusked elephant].

2. The word kuiṋjara is also used for a person who is well-established and respected by the society. Narakuiṋjara, Vidyákuiṋjara, for example.

3. The third meaning is a palace or a mansion.

4. Another meaning of the word kuiṋjara is abhraḿlehii giri (a high mountain; literally, a sky-kissing mountain).

5. Another meaning of the word kuiṋjara is brick.

6. Another meaning of the word kuiṋjara is ́wavy hair’.

7. Another meaning of the word kuiṋjara is country.

Footnotes

(1) There is a cluster of Shiva temples on the way to Guskara in the northwest part of Burdwan town; in one of these temples there is an image of Ardhanariishvara [literally, Lord Shiva with half the body of a woman].

(2) There are eighteen species of jujube tree in the Kolkata garden of the author – the jujubes range from the very sweet to the very sour.

(3) A fried flat bread stuffed with a spicy paste of pigeon peas. –Trans.

(4) A simple fried flat bread. –Trans.

(5) In Bengal of those days if the son of a zamindar [feudal aristocrat] was a minor or the zamindar himself was not able to look after the estate properly, the Government would take over the responsibility of running the estate. This system of the Government taking charge was called the Court of Wards. For this the Government used to appoint one or more magistrates as the director of the Court of Wards. They used to run the estate until the minor son of the zamindar came of age or the incapable zamindar was considered fit to get back the estate. This Court of Wards used to pay a monthly allowance to the zamindar or his minor heir.

(6) Abhijáta means traditionally aristocratic. Some use instead the word sambhránta. No, it is not proper to use the word sambhránta to mean abhijáta. Sambhránta means one who has made a big blunder (samyak rúpena bhránta – sambhránta).

(7) alagnasparshaka>alaggapaccha>algáchoṋyá >algoch

	Shabda Cayaniká Part 4

ÁTMÁ, ÁTMAN. Soul, consciousness, PURUŚA, pure cognition. The átman of the Cosmos is PARAMÁTMAN, and that of the unit is the jiivátman.
ATHARVAVEDA. The last Veda, composed approximately 3000 years ago, older than the Jain scriptures.
ANGIKA, AUṊGIKÁ. A language of the eastern demi-Mágadhii group (Bengali, Oriya, etc.) spoken in Bhagalpur, Purnia and some other areas of Bihar.
AUṊGADESH. Literally "Auṋga" means "part " of Mahábhárata kingdom which status was given to Karńa in order to elevate him from the humiliating position of illegitimate birth. A portion of North Bihar area where Auṋgiká is the people’s language.
ÁYURVEDA. The Vedic system of medicine.

BHOJPURI. A language of the western demi-Mágadhii group Magahii, Chattisgarhii, etc. spoken in Arrah, Sasaram, Chapra, etc., Districts of Bihar and in eastern Uttar Pradesh districts.
BRAHMA. Supreme Entity, comprising both Puruśa, or SHIVA, and PRAKRTI, or Shakti.
BUDDHA. One who has attained bodhi, intuition. Lord Buddha, the propounder of Buddhism, appeared approximately 2500 years ago.

DEVA. Mythologically, a god, a deity. Philosophically, any vibration, or expression, emanating from the Cosmic Nucleus.
DHARMA. Characteristic property; spirituality; the path of righteousness in social affairs.
DIGAMBAR JAIN DARSHAN. A Jain sect; ascetics believing in this sect preferred to remain "without cloth" (digambar).

GAUṊGOTTARII. The place where the River Ganges originates.
GUŃA. Binding factor or principle; attribute; quality.
GURU. Gu means "darkness", ru means "dispeller"; hence "dispeller of darkness"; spiritual master.

KAŃÁDA. Maharśi Kańáda brought about a great revolution in the world of thought. Apart from his famous cause and effect theory, he also invented the atomic theory. Thus he was both a philosopher and scientist.
He belonged to Gándhárbhúmi (present-day Afghanistan).
KAYASTHA. A high caste in India, a sub-group (along with Brahmans and Vaedyas) of the Vipra caste.
KIIRTANA. Collective singing of the name of the Lord, combined with instrumental music and with a dance that expresses the spirit of surrender.
KRŚŃA, SHRII KRŚŃA. Literally, "the entity which attracts everything of the universe towards its own self", Parama Puruśa. A great Tantric guru, the historical Krśńa of about 1500 BC; second Táraka Brahama or Mahásambhúti.
KŚATRIYA. Written as kśatriya, a person whose mentality is to dominate over matter, a member of the warrior social class; written as Kśatriya, a member of the second-highest caste in India.
KUŃD́ALINII, KULAKUŃD́ALINII. Literally, "coiled serpentine"; sleeping divinity; the force dormant in the kula (lowest vertebra) of the body, which, when awakened, rises up the spinal column to develop all one’s spiritual potentialities.
KURUKŚETRA. Literally a field always saying "Kuru, kuru", "Do something, do something;" hence the world, the entire universe; the place where the Mahábhárata war was fought; a town near Delhi.

MAHÁBHÁRATA. "Great India"; the name of a military campaign guided by Lord Krśńa around 1500 BCE to unify India; the epic poem written by Maharshi Vyasa about this campaign.
MAGADH. Literally, "land of anti-Vedics". An ancient land, along the northern bank of River Shone, which Aryans could not enter initially. Presently the Magadh area comprises of certain South Bihar districts such as Patna, Gaya and Aurangabad.
MÁGADHII PRÁKRTA. Spoken language of eastern India. It has two branches: Eastern Demi-Mágadhii with six daughter languages such as Bengali and Angika and western Demi-Mágadhii with four daughter languages such as Magahi and Bhojpuri.
MAHÁKAOLA. A Tantric guru who can raise not only his own kuńd́alinii, but those of others also; in Buddhist Tantra, Mahákaola is sometimes symbolic of PARAMA PURUŚA.
MAHARASTRIAN PRÁKRTA. Spoken language of southwestern India evolved from Sanskrit.
MANTRA. A sound or collection of sounds which, when meditated upon, will lead to spiritual liberation. A mantra is incantative, pulsative, and ideative.
MÁYÁ. Creative Principle, PRAKRTI in Her phase of creation. One aspect of Máyá is the power to cause the illusion that the finite created objects are the ultimate truth.
MITHILA. An ancient land established in the Vedic period named after King Mithi who ruled and sanctified this kingdom, presently comprising districts such as Saharsa and Darbhanga of North Bihar.
MUGHAL PERIOD. The period of Indian history from 1526 to 1707.

NÁGPURII. The language of the Western Demi-Mágadhii group spoken in Ranchi, Lohardaga, etc., of Jharkhand State.
NIRGUŃA BRAHMA. BRAHMA unaffected by the GUŃAS; Non-Qualified Brahma.

PATHAN PERIOD. The period of Indian history from 1193 to 1526.
PANDAVAS. The five sons of king Pandu, the dharmic forces in the Mahábhárata war.
PARAMA PURUŚA. Supreme Consciousness.
PARAMÁTMÁ, PARAMÁTMAN. Supreme Consciousness in the role of witness of His own macropsychic conation. Paramátman comprises: (1) Puruśttama, the Macrocosmic Nucleus; (2) Puruśottama’s association with all creation in His extroversial movement (prota yoga); and (3) Puruśottama’s association with each unit creation individually (ota yoga) and (4) with all collectively (prota yoga) in His introversial movement.
PÁRVATII. The colloquial version of "Parvata Kanyá" – "Daughter of the Mountains"; one of the three wives of Sadáshiva.
PRAKRTI, PARAMÁ PRAKRTI. Cosmic Operative Principle. The Cosmic Operative Principle is composed of sattvaguńa, the sentient principle; rajoguńa, the mutative principle; and tamoguńa, the static principle.
PRÁKRTA. Seven spoken languages that developed from Sanskrit.
PRATISAIṊCARA. In the Cosmic Cycle, the step-by-step introversion and subtilization of consciousness from the state of solid matter to the Nucleus Consciousness. (Prati means "counter" and saiṋcara means "movement".)
PRATYAGÁTMÁ. PARAMA PURUŚA in the sense "That which takes a stance opposite to the jiivátmá and witnesses the jiivátmá".
purana, PURÁŃA. Mythological story with a moral import; educative fiction.
PURANIC AGE. The medieval period, about 500-1300 CE, when Hinduism was dominated by the PURÁŃAS.

QUINQUELEMENTAL. Composed of the ethereal, aerial, luminous, liquid and solid factors, or elements.

RAJAH, RAJOGUŃA. See PRAKRTI.
RÁŕH. The territory, mostly in West Bengal, stretching from the west bank of the Bhagirathi River to the Parasnath Hills.
RÁMÁYAŃA. An epic poem of India. It is the story of King Rama, or Ramchandra.

SADHANA. Literally, "sustained effort"; spiritual practice; meditation.
SAIṊCARA. In the Cosmic Cycle, the step-by-step extroversion and crudification of consciousness from the Nucleus Consciousness to the state of solid matter. (Saiṋcara literally means "movement".)
SÁḿKHYA. The oldest school of philosophy, first propounded by Maharshi Kapila. The word sáḿkhya means "that which is related to saḿkhyá, or numerals".
SAḿSKÁRA. Mental reactive momentum, potential mental reaction.
SANSKRIT. SAḿSKRTA. The classical language of India. It first emerged during the Post-Shiva period, and as a spoken language it began to be supplanted by Prákrta prior to the Krśńa period. Although not a spoken language today except in very limited circumstances, it is still important for its vast literature, especially spiritual literature. Sanskrit and English are the languages of the world that have the richest vocabularies. Sanskrit pronunciation was perfected by non-Aryan Tantics in such a way that each of the fifty letters of the Sanskrit alphabet constitutes one acoustic root of Tantra.
SATTVAGUŃA. See PRAKRTI.
SATYALOKA. Literally, "Abode of Truth"; highest layer of mind; supramental state of witess-ship.
SHAKTI. PRAKRTI; energy; a deification of Prakrti.
SHÁKTA. Worshpper of Shakti cult.
SHANKARACARYA. One of the greatest philosopher of India 1300 years ago, born at Kaladi of South India. He is famous for his commentaries on the classical Upanishads, the Bhagvat Giita and the Brahma Sútra of Badaryan on which he based the doctrine of pure monism.
shashanka, shashauṋka. King of Gaoŕa, i.e., Bengal, before 606 CE. He formed Gaoŕa into a vast kingdom.
SHVETÁMBARA JAENa DARSHANA. A Jain sect who prefer to remain in white dress.
SHIVA. A great Tantric guru of 5000 BCE who guided society while His mind was absorbed in Consciousness; hence, Infinite Consciousness, PURUŚA.
SHAEVA. Shaivite; pertaining to the Shiva Cult or Religion.
SHÚDRA. Written as shúdra, a person with a mentality of physical enjoyment only, a member of the labourer social class; written as "Shúdra", a member of the lowest caste in India.
SUŚUMNÁ. The Psycho-spiritual channel within the spinal column through which the kulakuŃD́alinIi rises during meditation.

TANTRA. A spiritual tradition which originated in India in prehistoric times and was first systematized by Shiva. It emphasizes the development of human vigour, both through meditation and through confrontation of difficult external situations, to overcome all fears and weaknesses. Also, a scripture expounding that tradition.
TAMOGUŃA. See PRAKRTI.
TATTVA. A category of existence; a reality; the existence of the essential root entity hidden within every entity.

UPANISHAD, UPANIŚAD. Literally, "that which brings one near"; certain philosophical sections of the Vedas.

VAEŚŃAVA. Vaishnavitei; Pertaining to the Viśńu Cult or Religion.
VEDA. Literally, "knowledge"; hence, a composition imparting spiritual knowledge. Also, a religious or philosophical school which originated among the Aryans and was brought by them to India. It is based on the Vedas and emphasizes the use of ritual to gain the intervention of the gods.
VIŚŃU. Literally, "entity which pervades each and every thing;" All-Pervading Entity; Preserving Entity; a mythological god.