EE7.5 - Proutist Economics [a compilation]

In September 1987 P.R. Sarkar instructed that all his discourses on PROUT, an acronym for Progressive Utilization Theory, be compiled and published as one series, which he called PROUT in a Nutshell. In October 1991 the last part of the first edition of the series, Part 21, was published in English.

With the completion of this work, the publishers began re-editing and retranslating the discourses in PROUT in a Nutshell. Our intention is to present selected discourses on specific topics in separate volumes, and to publish the discourses in the second edition of PROUT in a Nutshell in chronological order according to the author’s original wish.

All of P.R. Sarkar’s discourses on economics from PROUT in a Nutshell have been re-edited or retranslated for this book. The name Proutist Economics – Discourses on Economic Liberation was selected as the title because we felt it most aptly conveyed the author’s unique economic vision. The essential characteristic of the author’s economic system is that it must free human beings from mundane problems so that all will have increasing opportunities for intellectual and spiritual liberation.

Shortly before his departure the author observed, “Economics today is a theoretical extravaganza. It should be made more practical.” He was of the view that economics must be a precise, practical science and should be properly developed for the welfare of all.

The author was most concerned with the plight of the downtrodden mass, and devoted much time to guiding Proutists from various parts of northeastern India in how best to raise the standard of living of the local people. In one of his encouraging messages to a group of economists who were working to elevate the standard of living of the poor, he commented, “For every noble deed I always extend my support. In your attempt for the economic emancipation of humanity, my full support is there.”

It was the author’s practice to deliver extempore discourses on a vast range of subjects, including economics, to his disciples. he would often deliver discourses on a particular subject over several days or weeks to different groups of people. Such discourses have been compiled and edited into a single discourse, and dated in this book from the first occasion the author spoke on the subject.

The publishers have arranged the discourses in this edition into six parts. The discourses in each part are generally arranged in chronological order.

Part One deals with the key principles for economic liberation. It sets out the essential principles of PROUT’s economic system.

Part Two provides a brief critique of capitalism and communism, the dominant materialist theories in the world today.

Part Three demonstrates how rural development should be structured for collective welfare. It stresses the need for coordinated cooperation in agricultural production.

Part Four sets out the conditions necessary to raise the standard of local people through economic decentralization.

Part Five outlines some policies that can be immediately adopted to alleviate the suffering of downtrodden people.

Part Six, some thirty percent of the book, includes a detailed discussion of some case studies from northeastern India, and provides numerous practical examples of how to elevate the economic standard of the millions of poor people living in this region.

Most of the discourses in this book were originally given in either Bengali or English, and in several cases, both languages simultaneously. The following discourses were given in Bengali and retranslated for this edition: “The Principles of PROUT”, “Some Specialities of PROUT’s Economic System”, “Keep Money Rolling”, “Capitalism in Three Spheres”, “Economic Depressions”, “Agrarian Revolution”, “Farmer’s Cooperatives”, “Decentralized Economy – 2”, “East Wet Theory”, “Population Growth and Control” and “Developmental Programmes”. “Dynamic Equilibrium and Equipoise” and all the discourses in Part Six and were also given in Bengali and re-edited for this book.

The following discourses were compiled from the original English: “Minimum Requirements and Maximum Amenities”, “Economic Dynamics”, “Feudalism and the Zamindary System”, “Elevating Backward Classes” and “Multi-Purpose Development Schemes”. Most of “Questions and Answers on Economics” was also given in English.

Some chapters are divided by a short line into sections which were given in either Bengali or English. For example, the first section of both “Principles of Balanced Economy” and “Cooperative Production” was given in Bengali and retranslated for this edition, and the second section was given in English. The first two sections of “Defects of Communism” were given in Bengali and also retranslated for this edition, and the third section was given in English.

Several discourses were compiled in English from the original English and Bengali. These discourses, which have been re-edited for this edition, include: “Socio-Economic Groupifications”, “Quadri-Dimensional Economy”, “Cooperatives”, “Integrated Farming”, “Water Conservation”, “Block-Level Planning”, “Decentralized Economy – 1” and “Economic Democracy”. The chapter “Developmental Planning” was also compiled in English from discourses given in several languages during the author’s November and December 1979 tour of India to demonstrate the practical application of the theory of socio-economic groupifications.

In several cases unpublished points given by the author have been incorporated into some of the re-edited discourses.

Finally, square brackets [ ] in the text are used to indicate editorial insertions. Round brackets ( ) indicate a word or idea originally given by the author.

Chapter 5

Published in:
Ananda Marga Philosophy in a Nutshell Part 2 [a compilation]
Ánanda Sútram
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 2 Part 6 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]
Universal Humanism [a compilation]

Notes:

official source: Ánanda Sútram

this version: is the Ánanda Sútram, 2nd edition, 2nd printing, version (obvious spelling, punctuation and typographical mistakes only may have been corrected). I.e., this is the most up-to-date version as of the present Electronic Edition.

Published in Ananda Marga Philosophy in a Nutshell Part 2 as the Chapter 5 section of the article “Ánanda Sútram”; published in Universal Humanism as “The Principles of Progressive Socialism”; published in Prout in a Nutshell Part 4 and Proutist Economics as “The Principles of Prout”.

used to be in P Nutshell 4

Purport: Since no well-knit social order had evolved in the distant past, we may call that age the Shúdra Age; in those days all people survived by their manual labour. Then came the age of clan leaders – the age of the strong and the brave – which we may call the Kśatriya Age. This was followed by the age of intellectuals, which we may call the Vipra Age. Finally came the age of capitalists, the Vaeshya Age.

When the warriors and intellectuals are reduced to the level of manual labourers as a result of exploitation during the Vaeshya Age, shúdra revolution occurs. The shúdras have neither a well-knit social order nor sufficient intellect to govern society. Hence, the post-capitalist administration passes into the hands of those who provide the leadership in the shúdra revolution. These people are brave and courageous, so they begin the second Kśatriya Age.

In this way the Shúdra, Kśatriya, Vipra and Vaeshya Ages move in succession, followed by revolution; then the second cyclic order begins. Thus, the rotation of the samája cakra [social cycle] continues.

[Located in the nucleus of the social cycle, sadvipras control the social cycle.]

Purport: Those who are staunch moralists and sincere spiritualists, and who want to put an end to immorality and exploitation by the application of force, are called sadvipras. They do not belong to the periphery of the social cycle because they are to control society remaining firmly established in the nucleus of the social cycle.

The social cycle will no doubt rotate, but if, due to their dominance, the warriors in the Kśatriya Age, the intellectuals in the Vipra Age or the capitalists in the Vaeshya Age degenerate into rapacious exploiters instead of functioning as benevolent administrators, the sacred duty of the sadvipras shall be to protect the righteous and the exploited and subdue the wicked and the exploiters through the application of force.

[Accelerating the movement of the social cycle by the application of force is called “evolution”.]

Purport: When warriors degenerate into exploiters, sadvipras will establish the Vipra Age by subduing the exploiting warriors. Consequently, the advent of the Vipra Age, which should have occurred through a natural process, is expedited by the application of force. A change of ages in this way may be called kránti [“evolution”]. The difference between evolution and svábhávika parivarttana [natural change] is only this: in evolution the movement of the social cycle is accelerated by the application of force.

[Accelerating the movement of the social cycle by the application of tremendous force is called “revolution”.]

Purport: When a particular age is replaced by the successive age within a short time, or when the application of tremendous force is necessary to destroy the entrenched hegemony of a particular age, then such change is called viplava [“revolution”].

[Reversing the movement of the social cycle by the application of force is called “counter-evolution”.]

Purport: If any age reverts to the preceding one by the application of force, such a change is called vikránti [“counter-evolution”]. For instance, the establishment of the Kśatriya Age after the Vipra Age is counter-evolution. This counter-evolution is extremely short-lived. That is, within a very short time this age is again replaced by the next age or the one after it. In other words, if the Kśatriya Age suddenly supersedes the Vipra Age through counter-evolution, then the Kśatriya Age will not last long. Within a short time either the Vipra Age, or as a natural concomitant the Vaeshya Age, will follow.

[Reversing the movement of the social cycle by the application of tremendous force is called “counter-revolution”.]

Purport: Likewise, if within a very short time the social cycle is turned backwards by the application of tremendous force, such a change is called prativiplava [“counter-revolution”]. Counter-revolution is even more short-lived than counter-evolution.

Purport: One complete rotation of the social cycle, concluding with shúdra revolution, is called parikránti [“peripheric evolution”].

Purport: Diversity, not identity, is the innate characteristic of the Supreme Operative Principle. No two objects in the universe are identical, nor two bodies, two minds, two molecules or two atoms. This diversity is the inherent tendency of the Supreme Operative Principle.

Those who want to make everything equal are sure to fail because they are going against the innate characteristic of the Supreme Operative Principle. All things are equal only in the unmanifest state of the Supreme Operative Principle. Those who think of making all things equal inevitably think of the destruction of everything.

Purport: Hararme pitá Gaorii mátá svadeshah bhuvanatrayam. That is, “Supreme Consciousness is my father, the Supreme Operative Principle is my mother, and the three worlds are my homeland.” The entire wealth of the universe is the common patrimony of all, though no two things in the universe are absolutely equal. So the minimum requirements of life should be made available to everybody. In other words, food, clothing, medical treatment, housing and education must be provided to all. The minimum requirements of human beings, however, change according to the change in ages. For instance, for conveyance the minimum requirement may be a bicycle in one age and an aeroplane in another age. The minimum requirements must be provided for all people according to the age in which they live.

[The surplus wealth should be distributed among meritorious people according to the degree of their merit.]

Purport: After meeting the minimum requirements of all in any age, the surplus wealth will have to be distributed among meritorious people according to the degree of their merit. In an age when a bicycle is the minimum requirement for common people, a motor vehicle is necessary for a physician. In recognition of people’s merit, and to provide the meritorious with greater opportunities to serve the society, they have to be provided with motor vehicles. The dictum “Serve according to your capacity and earn according to your necessity” sounds pleasing, but will yield no results in the hard soil of the earth.⁽¹⁾

[Increasing the minimum standard of living of the people is the indication of the vitality of society.]

Purport: Meritorious people should receive more than the amount of minimum requirements allocated to people in general, and there should be ceaseless efforts to raise the minimum standard of living. For instance, today common people need bicycles whereas meritorious people need motor vehicles, but a proper effort should be made to provide common people with motor vehicles. After everybody has been provided with a motor vehicle, it may be necessary to provide each meritorious person with an aeroplane. After providing every meritorious person with an aeroplane, efforts should also be made to provide every common person with an aeroplane, raising the minimum standard of living. In this way efforts to raise the minimum standard of living will have to go on endlessly, and on this endeavour will depend the mundane development and prosperity of human beings.

[No individual should be allowed to accumulate any physical wealth without the clear permission or approval of the collective body.]

Purport: The universe is the collective property of all. All people have usufructuary rights but no one has the right to misuse this collective property. If a person acquires and accumulates excessive wealth, he or she directly curtails the happiness and convenience of others in society. Such behaviour is flagrantly antisocial. Therefore, no one should be allowed to accumulate wealth without the permission of society.

5-13. Sthúlasúkśmakárańeśu caramopayogah prakartavyah
vicárasamarthitaḿ vańt́anaiṋca.

[There should be maximum utilization and rational distribution of all mundane, supramundane and spiritual potentialities of the universe.]

Purport: The wealth and resources available in the crude, subtle and causal worlds should be developed for the welfare of all. All resources hidden in the quinquelemental world – solid, liquid, luminous, aerial and ethereal – should be fully utilized, and the endeavour to do this will ensure the maximum development of the universe. People will have to earnestly explore land, sea and space to discover, extract and process the raw materials needed for their requirements.

There should be rational distribution of the accumulated wealth of humanity. In other words, all people must be guaranteed the minimum requirements. In addition, the requirements of meritorious people, and in certain cases those with special needs, will also have to be kept in mind.

5-14.
Vyaśt́isamaśt́isháriiramánasádhyátmikasambhávanáyáḿ
caramo’payogashca.

[There should be maximum utilization of the physical, metaphysical and spiritual potentialities of unit and collective bodies of human society.]

Purport: Society must ensure the maximum development of the collective body, collective mind and collective spirit. One must not forget that collective welfare lies in individuals and individual welfare lies in collectivity. Without ensuring individual comforts through the proper provision of food, light, air, accommodation and medical treatment, the welfare of the collective body can never be achieved. One will have to promote individual welfare motivated by the spirit of promoting collective welfare.

The development of the collective mind is impossible without developing proper social awareness, encouraging the spirit of social service and awakening knowledge in every individual. So, inspired with the thought of the welfare of the collective mind, one has to promote the well-being of the individual mind.

The absence of spiritual morality and spirituality in individuals will break the backbone of the collectivity. So for the sake of collective welfare one will have to awaken spirituality in individuals. The mere presence of a handful of strong and brave people, a small number of scholars or a few spiritualists does not indicate the progress of the entire society. The potential for infinite physical, mental and spiritual development is inherent in every human being. This potentiality has to be harnessed and brought to fruition.

[There should be a proper adjustment amongst these physical, metaphysical, mundane, supramundane and spiritual utilizations.]

Purport: While promoting individual and collective welfare, there should be proper adjustment among the physical, mental and spiritual spheres and the crude, subtle and causal worlds. For instance, society has the responsibility to meet the minimum requirements of every individual, but if it arranges food and builds a house for everyone under the impetus of this responsibility, individual initiative is retarded. People will gradually become lethargic. Therefore, society has to make arrangements so that people, in exchange for their labour according to their capacity, can earn the money they require to purchase the minimum requirements. In order to raise the level of the minimum requirements of people, the best policy is to increase their purchasing capacity.

“Proper adjustment” also means that while taking service from a person who is physically, mentally and spiritually developed, society should follow a balanced policy. Society will take physical, intellectual or spiritual service from a person depending upon which of these capacities is conspicuously developed in that person. From those who are sufficiently physically and intellectually developed, society will follow a balanced policy and accordingly take more intellectual service and less physical service, because intellectual power is comparatively subtle and rare. From those who are physically, mentally and spiritually developed, society will take maximum spiritual service, less intellectual service and still less physical service.

As far as social welfare is concerned, those endowed with spiritual power can render the greatest service, followed by those endowed with intellectual power. Those having physical power, though not negligible, cannot do anything by themselves. Whatever they do, they do under the instructions of those endowed with intellectual and spiritual power. Hence the responsibility of controlling the society should not be in the hands of those who are endowed only with physical power, or in the hands of those endowed only with courage, or in the hands of those who are developed only intellectually, or in the hands of those with worldly knowledge alone. Social control will have to be in the hands of those who are spiritually elevated, intelligent and brave all at the same time.

5-16. Deshakálapátraeh upayogáh parivarttante te upayogáh
pragatishiiláh bhaveyuh.

[The method of utilization should vary in accordance with changes in time, space and person, and the utilization should be of progressive nature.]

Purport: The proper use of any object changes according to changes in time, space and person. Those who cannot understand this simple principle want to cling to the skeletons of the past, and as a result they are rejected by living society. Sentiments based on narrow nationalism, regionalism, ancestral pride, etc., tend to keep people away from this fundamental principle, so they cannot unreservedly accept it as a simple truth. Consequently, after doing indescribable damage to their country, their fellow citizens and themselves, they are compelled to slink away to the backstage.

The method of utilization of every object changes according to time, space and person. This has got to be accepted, and after recognizing this fact, people will have to progressively utilize every object and every idea. For instance, the energy which a powerful person utilizes to operate a huge hammer should be utilized through scientific research to operate more than one hammer at a time, instead of wasting the energy to operate just one hammer. In other words, scientific research, guided by progressive ideas, should extract more and more service from the same human potential. It is not a sign of progress to use outdated technology in an age of developed science.

Society will have to bravely confront different types of obstacles, large or small, that are likely to arise due to the use of various resources and materials created by progressive ideas and developed technology. Through struggle, society will have to move forward towards victory along the path of all-round fulfilment in life.

Pragatishiila upayogatattvamidaḿ sarvajanahitárthaḿ sarvajanasukhárthaḿ pracáritam. [This is the Progressive Utilization Theory, propounded for the happiness and all-round welfare of all.]

(1) On 13 October 1989 the author gave the discourse “Minimum Requirements and Maximum Amenities” (Proutist Economics, 1992), and instructed that the essential ideas contained in this discourse should be added to the present chapter. These ideas were summarized by the author as follows: “(1) Minimum requirements are to be guaranteed to all. (2) Special amenities are for people of special calibre as per the environmental condition of the particular age. (3) Maximum amenities are to be guaranteed to all, even to those who have no special qualities – to common people of common calibre. Maximum amenities are to be guaranteed to all as per environmental conditions. These amenities are for those of ordinary calibre – the common people, the so-called downtrodden humanity. (4) All three above are never-ending processes, and they will go on increasing according to the collective potentialities. This appendix to our philosophy may be small, but it is of progressive nature and progressive character. It has far-reaching implications for the future.” –Eds.

(2) In 1959 the author gave five principles in English known as the “Five Fundamental Principles of Prout”. They were published as part of the discourse “The Cosmic Brotherhood” in Idea and Ideology. Subsequently, in 1961, the author dictated Ánanda Sútram, whose fifth chapter contains, as we see here, sixteen Sanskrit sútras, or aphorisms. Aphorisms 12 to 16 correspond to the Five Fundamental Principles given earlier in English. In this edition of Ánanda Sútram, the author’s original English of each of the Five Fundamental Principles has been printed below the corresponding Sanskrit aphorism. (Though in each case it is the author’s English, it has been presented in square brackets because it was not originally given in the context of this book.) What follows every other Sanskrit aphorism in this chapter and other chapters is a translation of the aphorism rendered by the editors. Thus the bracketed English below the Sanskrit in each of Aphorisms 12-16 is not a translation as such. Note that the word samája in Sútra 5-12 is normally translated “society”; “collective body” appears in the English. Parivarttante in Sútra 5-16 is normally translated “does vary” (present indicative); “should vary” appears in the English. –Eds.

Some Specialities of Prout's Economic System

Published in:
A Few Problems Solved Part 9
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 13 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

There are several specialities of PROUT’s economic system. These include guaranteed minimum requirements, increasing purchasing capacity, cooperatives, industrial development, decentralization and developmental planning. PROUT also has its specialities in trade and commerce.⁽¹⁾

PROUT’s economic system guarantees the minimum requirements of life – that is, food, clothing, accommodation, medical treatment and education – to each and every person. Once the minimum requirements have been guaranteed, the surplus wealth is to be distributed among people with special qualities and skills such as physicians, engineers and scientists, because such people play an important role in the collective development of society. The quantum of the minimum requirements should be progressively increased so that the standard of living of the common people is always increasing.

The concept of equal distribution is a utopian idea. It is merely a clever slogan to deceive simple, unwary people. PROUT rejects this concept and advocates the maximum utilization and rational distribution of resources. This will provide incentives to increase production.

To effectively implement this, increasing the purchasing capacity of each individual is the controlling factor in a Proutistic economy. The purchasing capacity of common people in many undeveloped, developing and developed countries has been neglected, hence the economic systems of these countries are breaking down and creating a worldwide crisis.

The first thing that must be done to increase the purchasing capacity of the common people is to maximize the production of essential commodities, not the production of luxury goods. This will restore parity between production and consumption and ensure that the minimum requirements are supplied to all.

According to PROUT, the cooperative system is the best system for the production and distribution of commodities. Cooperatives, run by moralists, will safeguard people against different forms of economic exploitation. Agents or intermediaries will have no scope to interfere in the cooperative system.

One of the main reasons for the failure of the cooperative system in different countries of the world is the rampant immorality spread by capitalist exploiters to perpetuate their domination.

Cooperatives develop in a community which has an integrated economic environment, common economic needs and a ready market for its cooperatively produced goods. All these factors must be present for cooperatives to evolve. Properly managed cooperatives are free from the defects of individual ownership. Production can be increased as required in cooperatives due to their scientific nature.

For their success, cooperative enterprises depend on morality, strong administration and the wholehearted acceptance of the cooperative system by the people. Wherever these three factors are evident in whatever measure, cooperatives will achieve proportionate success. To encourage people to form cooperatives, successful cooperative models should be established and people should be educated about the benefits of the cooperative system.

The latest technology should be used in the cooperative system, both in production and distribution. Appropriate modernization will lead to increased production.

Cooperative managers should be elected from among those who have shares in the cooperative. Members of agricultural cooperatives will get dividends in two ways – according to the amount of land they donated to the cooperative, and according to the amount of their productive manual or intellectual labour. To pay this dividend, initially the total produce should be divided on a fifty-fifty basis – fifty percent should be disbursed as wages and fifty percent should be paid to the shareholders in proportion to the land they donated. Local people should get first preference in participating in cooperative enterprises.

Developmental planning should be adopted to bring about equal development in all regions instead of just some particular regions. Local wealth and other resources and potentialities should be utilized in this developmental plan.

The controversial problem of the ownership of land can be solved by the phase-wise socialization of land through agricultural cooperatives. Cooperative land ownership should be implemented step by step in adjustment with the economic circumstances of the local area. During this process the ownership of land should not be in the hands of any particular individual or group.

PROUT divides the industrial structure into three parts – key industries managed by the immediate or local government, cooperatives and private enterprises. This system will eliminate confusion regarding whether or not a particular industry should be managed privately or by the governnment, and will avoid duplication between the government and private enterprise.

In many undeveloped and developing countries of the world there is excessive population pressure on agriculture. It is improper if more than forty-five percent of the population is employed in agriculture. In villages and small towns a large number of agro-industries and agrico-industries should be developed to create new opportunities for employment. In addition, agriculture should be given the same status as industry so that agricultural workers will understand the importance and value of their labour.

According to the wages policy of PROUT, wages need not be accepted only in the form of money. They may be accepted in the form of essential goods or even services. It is advisable to gradually increase this component of wages in adjustment with the monetary component of wages.

PROUT supports maximum modernization in industry and agriculture by introducing the most appropriate scientific technology, yet modernization and rationalization should not lead to increased unemployment. In PROUT’s collective economic system, full employment will be maintained by progressively reducing working hours as the introduction of appropriate scientific technology increases production. This is not possible in capitalism.

To materialize the above economic programme, PROUT advocates a new and unique approach to decentralization based on the formation of socio-economic units throughout the world. Socio-economic units should be formed on the basis of factors such as common economic problems; uniform economic potentialities; ethnic similarities; common geographical features; and people’s sentimental legacy, which arises out of common socio-cultural ties like language and cultural expression. Each socio-economic unit will be completely free to chalk out its own economic plan and the methods of its implementation.

Within each socio-economic unit there will also be decentralized planning, which is called “block-level planning” in PROUT. Block-level planning boards will be the lowest level planning bodies.

One political unit such as a federal or unitary state may contain a number of socio-economic units. For example, the state of Bihar in India can be divided into five socio-economic units – Angadesh, Magadh, Mithila, Bhojpuri and Nagpuri. Based on the above factors the whole of India may be divided into forty-four socio-economic units. These units must be guaranteed full freedom to achieve economic self-sufficiency through the implementation of their own economic planning and policies.

If the local people in these units organize large-scale programmes for their all-round socio-economic and cultural liberation, there will be a widespread socio-economic awakening in the whole of India. Regardless of whether they are rich or poor, old or young, educated or illiterate, if the local people are inspired by anti-exploitation and universal sentiments, they will be able to start powerful movements for socio-economic liberation. When people merge their individual socio-economic interests with the collective socio-economic interest, the outflow of economic wealth from a region will cease and exploitation will be completely rooted out. The right of full employment for all local people will be guaranteed, and the employment of local people will take precedence over non-local people.

Where there is no proper economic development, surplus labour develops. In fact all undeveloped economic regions suffer from surplus labour, and when the surplus labour migrates to other regions the region remains undeveloped forever. In areas of surplus labour provision should be made to immediately employ the local people.

While providing employment to local people, local sentiments should also be taken into consideration. Maximum agro-industries and agrico-industries should be established on the basis of the socio-economic potential of the region, and various other types of industries should be established according to the collective needs. This approach will create enormous opportunities for new employment. Through such an employment policy, increasing the standard of living of the local people will be possible.

In a decentralized socio-economic system the modernization of industry and agriculture can be easily introduced, and the goods that are produced will be readily available in the market. As each socio-economic unit develops its economic potential, per capita income disparities among different regions will decline and the economic position of undeveloped regions can be raised to that of developed regions. When every region becomes economically self-reliant, the whole country will rapidly achieve economic self-sufficiency. Economic prosperity will be enjoyed by each and every person.

PROUT’s decentralized economy follows a specific guiding principle. That is, effective economic planning should be based on four fundamental factors – the cost of production, productivity, purchasing capacity and collective necessity. Other related factors include natural resources, geographical features, climate, river systems, transportation, industrial potentialities, cultural heritage and social conditions.

Due to the lack of a well-defined principle of economic planning and the dominance of various narrow sentiments, India’s economy has been paralysed by inertia. Steel plants have been built where there is no supply of cheap power, and huge oil refineries like those in Mathura and Barauni have been constructed where there are no raw materials within 1,000 miles. Such a policy is not only a great waste and misuse of resources, it also illustrates the lack of foresight and ignorance of India’s planners.

This situation is reminiscent of the British period when raw jute from Bengal was sent to Dundee in Great Britain to develop the British jute industry. When the supply of raw jute from Bengal was stopped, all the jute factories in Dundee were closed down. If the finished jute products made in Dundee had not been sold in Bengal, the Dundee jute industry would not have survived.

This economic history is relevant to the dying jute industry in Bengal today. The present political climate is full of slogans like, “Let the closed jute factories be nationalized,” and, “Stop the lock-out.” Trade union leaders are amassing great wealth by exploiting this depressed industry while thousands of unemployed workers are being subjected to deprivation, starvation and untold suffering. Bengal does not even supply sufficient raw jute to run its own jute mills, so raw jute has to be imported from outside the region to supply the existing mills.

If people want to make the jute industry healthy some clear-cut, bold steps have to be taken. The number of jute mills should be reduced so that they correspond to the dwindling supply of raw jute. The additional mills should be closed down or converted to the production of other essential commodities. The mills engaged in jute production should produce mainly jute thread rather than other jute products, and jute thread should be distributed among farmers and weavers through a system of jute cooperatives. If such a policy is adopted the large demand for thread in Bengal will be met, and the surplus production can be exported. As the industry will be decentralized the wealth generated from thread production will be spread among the local people, ending large-scale exploitation by wealthy jute merchants and raising the standard of living of the local people.

So, on the basis of the above factors, each socio-economic unit should draw up its own developmental plan for socio-economic self-sufficiency and then implement it. Grandiose planning which is irrelevant or inappropriate for the local economic conditions should not be imposed from the outside. It will not be allowed.

Centralized planning has totally failed in all countries of the world, including India. In PROUT’s system of decentralized planning, there should be one coordinated plan for the whole socio-economic unit on the basis of block-level planning. For example, for the entire western Ráŕh, including Bankura, Purulia, etc., there should be a sub-plan. Similarly, there should be another sub-plan for Jalpaiguri, Coochbehar, Siliguri and Goalpara. In addition, there should be proper block-level planning throughout the socio-economic unit. Thus, the seed of economic centralization will be destroyed.

PROUT also has its own specialities in the fields of trade, commerce, taxation and banking. The distribution of essential commodities will have to be done entirely through consumer cooperatives, not through the government, businessmen or different levels of middlemen. This will not leave any scope for manipulation by profiteers. As far as possible barter should be the basis for trade among self-sufficient socio-economic units.

Essential commodities will have to be entirely tax free. There will be no income tax. Instead taxes should be levied at the starting point of production.

The banking system will have to be managed by cooperatives. The central or federal bank will be controlled by the immediate or local government.

The maxim of PROUT’s productive economy is, “Increase the purchasing capacity of the common people above all.” If this maxim is followed in practice, it will be easy to control the prices of commodities through the cooperative system and economic decentralization.

(1) This discourse was given by the author in June 1979. Subsequently, more discourses were given on PROUT which can also be considered specialities of PROUT’s economic system. These include: “Economic Dynamics”, “Decentralized Economy”, “Economic Democracy”, etc. –Eds.

Socio-Economic Groupifications

Published in:
A Few Problems Solved Part 9
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 13 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

In today’s world large animals are on the verge of extinction. Environmental conditions do not support the existence of big animals any longer. In the past many large creatures inhabited the earth, but as environmental conditions changed and human beings extended their domination over the planet, giant animals became extinct.

Similarly, small states are struggling to survive. People are more interested in forming larger and larger socio-economic units to ensure the welfare of all than in maintaining many small states. Narrow sentiments are gradually fading away and a universal outlook is arising in the minds of human beings. Science and technological development have exposed the blind faith and dogma that have suffocated many sections of society, and gradually humanity is advancing towards an age of rationality and common interest. The present age is not the age of large animals and small states.

In accordance with this trend, PROUT advocates the formation of self-sufficient socio-economic units throughout the world. They will work to enhance the all-round welfare of the people in their respective areas and unite humanity on a common ideological base. The interests of all local people will be guaranteed and gain proper recognition. As each unit becomes strong and prosperous it will merge with other units. The formation of a world government will assist this process of integration. Socio-economic units will thus facilitate the comprehensive, multifarious liberation of humanity.

Since the beginning of history there has been an incessant fight for freedom from natural, social, economic and political bondages. This fight is inherent in human nature. Human beings want freedom both as individuals and as members of society, and to achieve this freedom they must fight against all types of oppression. Yet we find that when any oppressed group or class gained some measure of freedom it in turn oppressed others.

Whatever liberty exists in society today is the result of prolonged struggle by many individuals and groups. At the root of this struggle is the innate human desire for happiness – the longing to establish oneself in the supreme flow of bliss. To fulfil this longing in individual life, human beings have to attain the absolute state and break all shackles of relativity. It is a natural human tendency to liberate the mind from the bondages of time, space and person, but only the attainment of the absolute can fulfil the innate desire for happiness.

Society will have to encourage the individual search for absolute freedom because the psychic and spiritual realms are unlimited, and possession in these spheres does not hinder the progress of others. But unrestricted freedom to acquire wealth in the physical sphere has every possibility of permitting a few people to roll in luxury while hampering the all-round growth of the majority, because physical resources are limited. Individual liberty in the physical sphere must not be allowed to hamper the development of the complete human personality, and at the same time it must not be so drastically curtailed that the all-round growth of society is impeded.

Freedom is a right of every human being. To encourage comprehensive, unbarred human expression in the different spheres of social life a congenial socio-economic environment has to be created, because as such an environment does not exist today.

While forming socio-economic units, several factors should be considered. These include same economic problems; uniform economic potentialities; ethnic similarities; the sentimental legacy of the people; and similar geographical features.

“Same economic problems” refers to the common economic problems confronting people in a particular unit and may include the lack of markets for locally produced goods, surplus or deficit labour problems, communication or transportation difficulties and lack of irrigation water. Ascertaining whether or not a similar set of economic problems exists in an area is the first thing which should be clearly analysed when forming a socio-economic unit. The economic problems of the socio-economic unit, and their solutions, should be well understood.

Secondly, there should be uniform economic potentialities in the unit. Despite natural variations from place to place, overall the people throughout a unit should enjoy similar opportunities for economic prosperity. Disparity between the haves and the have-nots and the rich and the poor will have to be progressively reduced so that the collective wealth will increase and society will become bountiful.

Thirdly, there should be ethnic similarities. In the past many races and sub-races have been suppressed and exploited by powerful or dominant races. Racism has been propagated by those with evil designs in order to divide society and establish their own pre-eminence. Society must guard against such narrow and dangerous sentiments. This can be done only if every ethnic group has adequate scope for its expression and development. The multi-coloured garland of humanity will be enriched to the extent diverse human groups blend together from a position of strength and independence out of a genuine love for each other, and are not forced together through fear or compulsion.

Fourthly, sentimental legacy includes factors such as language, historical traditions, literature, common usages and cultural expressions. It is the common chord in the collective psychology of a particular group of people which gives them their unique identity and sense of affinity.

Human beings are predominantly sentimental by nature. They establish some kind of relationship with the many objects of the world through their day-to-day activities. If the sentiment for a particular favourite object is adjusted with the collective sentiment then that sentiment can be utilized for establishing unity in human society. The human sentiment for many objects may sometimes run counter to the collective sentiment and create great disunity, so those sentiments which are conducive to human unity should be encouraged, and the sentiments which divide human society should be rejected. This is the approach adopted by PROUT’s socio-economic units.

Finally, similar geographical features such as topography, river systems, rainfall and irrigation water should also be considered in the formation of a socio-economic unit.

Socio-economic units will give expression to popular sentiments and fight against all forms of exploitation to meet the demands and aspirations of the local people. Movements will have to be launched throughout the world to establish self-sufficient socio-economic units based on the maxim, “Know the area, prepare the plan and serve the people.” Local people are those who have merged their individual socio-economic interests with the socio-economic interests of the socio-economic unit they live in.

Each socio-economic unit should prepare and implement its own developmental programmes. Factors like natural resources, topography, river systems, cultural conditions, communication and industrial potential need to be considered to facilitate proper planning and development so that each unit will become economically self-sufficient and prosperous. If a significant part of the production of a unit is misutilized or capital is sent outside, the unit cannot increase its prosperity, hence there should be maximum utilization of all resources and no drainage of capital.

The Indian state of Orissa is very rich in mineral resources such as coal, bauxite and manganese, but the present leaders export these mineral resources to other countries. If the raw materials had been utilized for indigenous industrial production, then four big steel plants could easily have been established. This would have substantially raised per capita income. But the leaders, instead of paying attention to those things, whimsically frame five year plans. These plans neither remove economic disparity nor increase collective wealth.

To achieve these objectives, the Indian economy has to be thoroughly overhauled. At the very outset, to facilitate socio-economic development, the country should be divided into socio-economic units. If state boundaries are demarcated on the basis of political and linguistic considerations, then socio-economic plans can never be properly prepared and implemented, and various economic problems will not be given due attention. Self-sufficient units are indispensable for expediting the country’s economic progress.

Where there is economic parity, cultural mixing, communication facilities and administrative efficiency, it will be easy and natural for two or more adjoining units to cooperate, because they will have attained a high degree of socio-economic uniformity. In such cases they should merge to form a single larger unit. This will further the welfare of their respective citizens and enhance their socio-economic interests.

In some places regions with different economic problems are located within the same political unit. For example, in the Chotanagpur Hills in Bihar there is an acute problem of irrigation, whereas in the plains of north Bihar there is the problem of water drainage. These two regions should be formed into distinct socio-economic units. Royalseema, Shrii Kakulam and Telengana have all been annexed to the one political state of Andhra, although their economic problems are different. In the interests of the people living in these three regions, each should be formed into a distinct socio-economic unit. If these three regions are converted into a single economic unit right now simply for administrative purposes, it may lead to complications.

Thus, in some cases one political unit may be divided into two or more socio-economic units. That is, there can be more than one socio-economic unit in a political unit. This approach will enable different socio-economic units to develop to a level which fulfils their potentiality.

If a particular state in a federal system cannot get economic justice, it may agitate for the separate allocation of funds within the federal budget. If, after launching such an agitation, it still fails to secure proper justice, it will have no alternative but to demand the formation of a separate state.

However, PROUT does not favour the formation of many small states, each with its separate budget and administration. Numerous state divisions will only compound socio-economic problems, causing unnecessary duplication, and are costly and wasteful. Rather, small states should be expanded into larger socio-economic units.

When two units reach a similar level of development, they should merge together to form a larger unit. This process of unification will gradually result in the formation of one socio-economic unit for all India. In the next phase, through continued growth and development, the whole of South and Southeast Asia will become one socio-economic unit. Eventually, the whole world will function as one integrated socio-economic unit. After reaching this stage of development, socio-economic groupifications will have attained a state of equipoise and equilibrium, and universal fraternity will become a reality.

Socio-economic units are bound to gain great popularity all over the world within a short time. While there may be diverse cultural expressions and socio-economic potentialities in different units, the points of difference should not be allowed to divide humanity. If the common sentiments of human beings are given prominence and the points of unity are made the basis of collective development, diversity will enrich humanity rather than tear it asunder. If each socio-economic unit is inspired by a comprehensive ideology and a universal outlook, human society will move ahead with accelerating speed towards a sublime ideal.

A sound ideological base is a prerequisite for socio-economic groupifications. Such a foundation is provided by universal humanism, which has the potential to unite all humanity. Universal humanism will not be established on the hard crust of the earth overnight, but will come to fruition gradually, stage by stage. It will include each and every person in the world, as well as animals, plants and inanimate objects. If a single person remains outside the influence of universalism and becomes a victim of exploitation, then the foundation of universal humanism will be undermined. Hence, PROUT has adopted a rational method to solve socio-economic problems which may be characterized as universal in spirit but regional in approach.

Once socio-economic units are established throughout the world, how will exploitation be avoided in the future? Society will enjoy lasting protection from all types of exploitation only if an integrated ideology, an empirical spiritual base, spiritually oriented cadres and proper institutions are well established in social life.

An integrated ideology should have several aspects. It must be the basis for the rational analysis of socio-economic problems and the formulation of comprehensive, appropriate and logical solutions. Secondly, it must not ignore the human need for psychic expansion and spiritual emancipation. And thirdly, it should be imbued with inherent dynamism and vitality so that it can guide humanity forward in its quest for all-round progress.

An empirical spiritual base will protect society from all fissiparous tendencies and group or clan sentiments which create shackles of narrow-mindedness. Spirituality does not recognize any unnatural distinctions between human beings. It stands for evolution and elevation and not for superstition or pessimism.

Spiritually oriented cadres will provide a moral check against all forms of exploitation, and propagate moral and spiritual values throughout society according to the maxim, “Self-realization and service to humanity.”

Finally, proper institutions are necessary to reflect the needs and aspirations of the people and work for the cause of human welfare. The need for a world government is already apparent to many people, and in the future, once it is established, its powers should be progressively strengthened. Each socio-economic unit will have to get ample scope for its integrated development within the framework of the world government.

PROUT’s system of socio-economic groupifications is a comprehensive approach to the socio-economic problems confronting society. If people adopt such an approach, society will move along the path of progress with increasing speed, overcoming all bondages and hindrances. Human society will enjoy a bright and glorious future.

Keep Money Rolling – Excerpt A

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 12 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

Shabda Cayaniká Part 4

If a business is built with the help of loans from any source, then that enterprise is termed kátiká in Sanskrit. Suppose someone has no capital but wants to start a business by taking a loan, then that business is called kátiká vyavasá. You might have noticed that there are many countries which suffer from financial stringency, so they take loans from other countries. These loans are then used for ventures like constructing large dams on their rivers.

The science of economics teaches that the rolling of money should never be blocked by any sort of non-productive investment. Sometimes people misuse loans to construct an unnecessary building or a new showroom for their business, and thus prevent the possibility of reinvesting the capital and increasing their wealth. Economics teaches that loans taken for business investment should always be utilized for productive purposes, and should never be utilized in any unproductive venture. Foreign loans, for example, should never be invested in constructing large railway stations instead of railway lines.

Keep Money Rolling – Excerpt B

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 12 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

Shabda Cayaniká Part 10

The value of money increases with its mobility. That is, the more that money changes hands, the greater its economic value. On the other hand, the more that money is kept immobile in a safe, the more it loses its utility, and thus its economic value decreases. This is the most fundamental principle of economics.

The banking system is indispensable for promoting both collective welfare and the all-round economic advancement of people. The maxim, “Keep money rolling,” is as true as the proverb, “Keep the wagons moving.”

The banking system must be vigilant about two important points. First, the intrinsic demonic greed of the banks must not be allowed to jeopardize the life of the common people. In the past in most countries of the world the banks threatened the life of the common people. This more or less still occurs today not only in undeveloped countries, but also in developing and developed countries. Secondly, the banks must not allow unwise administrators or governments to print monetary notes indiscriminately without reserving the proportionate amount of bullion in their treasuries.

The first defect not only ruins low and middle income groups, but also impoverishes wealthy people. The second defect destroys the very life of society. It leads to widespread inflation, which in turn jeopardizes internal trade and commerce as well as foreign trade and barter. Even if there is abundant production in a country, the common people do not benefit. The rich become richer and get more scope to continue their merciless exploitation. In state capitalism, the exploitative rulers tighten their grip over society even more. State capitalism may call itself capitalism, socialism or communism, but ultimately it stands before the masses as more dangerous and bloodthirsty than bloodsucking ghouls and demons.

The banking system must continue, otherwise the mobility of money will be hindered. If people oppose the banking system because they are guided by selfish whims or any other sentiment, then their economy will stay in the dark ages. They are bound to lose equipoise and equilibrium in the physical sphere, remain lopsided in the psychic and spiritual spheres, and reduce themselves to objects of ridicule. It is very sad to imagine such a state.

So you see, the fundamental aim of the banking system is, “Keep money rolling.” Let governments be active. Let people purchase as much rice, pulses, vegetables, oil, salt, sugar, etc., as they can with money. Let money go to the grocers, the sugar cane vendors, the confectioners, the factory workers, the labourers and the weavers. And let the colourful saris of the weavers be purchased and worn by the newly married brides, adding to the beauty and prosperity of society.

Principles of Balanced Economy – Excerpt A

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 12 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

from Shabda Cayaniká Part 5

There are three main reasons why cities and states in the past lost economic balance and declined after achieving the height of prosperity. First, if the city or state developed following the course of a river system and the river suddenly changed direction or dried up, its economy was adversely affected. Secondly, if industries moved away from rural villages, the balance of the economy was also destroyed. The third reason was a defective educational system. If there are defects in the rural educational system and the social system, economic balance is lost.

In order to build a sound economy thirty to forty percent of the people in an area – neither more nor less – should depend directly on agriculture. If the percentage is smaller, agriculture is neglected. Conversely, if the percentage is greater, there will be a heavy strain on agriculture. This is exactly what happened in Ráŕh – and not only in Ráŕh, but throughout Bengal, India, China and Southeast Asia. To solve this problem today a new socio-economic analysis is required.

Just as agriculture will have to be based on a scientific system, industry will also have to be organized in perfect adjustment with agriculture. It is not proper under any circumstances if the percentage of the population depending directly on agriculture exceeds forty percent. Because rural industries have been destroyed, a major part of the population once engaged in that sector has now moved towards agriculture. For a perfectly balanced economic environment, it is required that some thirty to forty percent of the people should depend directly on agriculture, and about twenty percent on agro-industries, twenty percent on agrico-industries, ten percent on general trade and commerce, and ten percent on intellectual or white collar jobs.

In India village industries have been ruined, and those who depended on these industries have turned towards agriculture. While the percentage of traders has not increased much, the opportunities for further growth have decreased. In addition, the number of white collar job seekers has increased, resulting in soaring unemployment. The sons of rural peasants who have had a little education are no longer willing to labour in the fields. They want to become so-called gentlemen thriving on the labour of others. They consider agricultural work inferior. As a consequence, on the one hand there is a dearth of educated youths in agriculture, and on the other hand an increasing number of people from the ruined rural industries have moved towards agriculture. In rural areas the percentage of the population depending on agriculture has gone up to seventy or eighty percent. What an unbearable situation!

Non-agricultural industries (such as steel plants, the brass industry, the metal industry, oil refineries, the salt industry and non-herbal pharmaceuticals) mean those industries which are not directly agrico-industries (such as the production of picks, axes, spades and tractors) and industries which are not directly agro-industries (such as flour mills, jute mills, oil mills, cloth mills, paper mills and herbal medicine factories). The percentage of people engaged in non-agricultural industries should be formed by reducing the percentage of people depending directly on agriculture, agrico-industries and agro-industries. The percentage of people engaged in non-agricultural industries will have to be kept within twenty to thirty percent of the total population.

If the percentage of the population engaged in non-agricultural industries in a country is less than twenty percent, the country is said to be industrially undeveloped. The per capita income of the people cannot be very high. The standard of living also cannot be very high because people’s purchasing capacity remains very limited. Because of the low capacity for purchasing consumer goods, the import index always remains lower than the export index, or in other words the area has to remain a satellite of a developed country. Consequently, the balance of power in the world is jeopardized and war is always possible.

If the percentage of people engaged in non-agricultural industries is kept within twenty to thirty percent of the population, this is the state of balanced economy – a really balanced socio-economic structure. If the percentage goes beyond thirty percent, the area becomes industrially developed. Then, the more this percentage increases above thirty percent, the more over-industrialized the area becomes. In order to procure agricultural produce, over-industrialized countries try to grab productive agricultural regions or countries and make them their satellites. These over-industrialized countries also find it necessary to keep industrially undeveloped countries within their control in order to use them as a market for their finished goods. If they do not get a market to sell the consumer goods produced in their countries, they will suffer from economic depression and growing unemployment.

In this regard there is no difference between the communist and non-communist countries. They are equally aggressive in their approach. They desperately look for the kámadhenu. (Dhenu means “cow” and káma means “desire”. Kámadhenu is a mythological cow which gives as much milk as its master demands.) They want to keep it tied to the door, feeding it the minimum amount of fodder. They want the maximum output with the minimum investment. This is why there is so much war psychosis and sabre-rattling in the world today.

Efforts must be made so that each and every country of the world can enjoy socio-economic balance in both agriculture and industry, otherwise the socio-economic equilibrium of the world is bound to be destroyed.

The harmful internal consequences of over-industrialization not only affect the personal, social and national health of the people, they also precipitate gradual individual and collective psychic degeneration. A type of psychic epidemic may arise which can poison almost all expressions of life and destroy them. This may not happen today, but it will surely happen in the very near future.

Where the industrial system – the agro-industries, agrico- industries and non-agricultural industries – depends on outside labourers, it will lead to an extremely precarious situation. The speed of psychic degeneration will rapidly increase, and people will face permanent scarcity of food. There will be little possibility of expanding the markets for their consumer goods. Rather, the existing markets will gradually contract.

As examples we may cite Howrah, Hooghly, 24 Parganas and Burdwan in West Bengal. Most of the manual labourers in these districts are outsiders, hence the local people will never experience a good standard of living. However industrially developed or over-industrialized these districts might become, they will be seriously affected by the harmful internal consequences of over-industrialization, and will never enjoy any of the benefits of industrialization. This miserable picture can be seen every morning and evening in Howrah District.

On the other hand, there are many areas in India where ninety percent of the population is dependent on agriculture. There is no industry whatsoever in these areas. They are areas of surplus labour. In a balanced socio-economic structure there will be no such thing as surplus labour or deficit labour. Such a condition will never be allowed to arise.

The agricultural system should be structured as an industry. That is, the prices of agricultural produce should be determined by considering basic factors such as agricultural income, expenses and necessities. The farmers of Burdwan and Birbhum must not be forced to sell their rice at throw away prices; the growers of Hooghly district must not be compelled to sell their potatoes at very cheap rates; and the peasants of Nadia district must not be made to sell their jute at extremely low prices to pay off their debts.

Principles of Balanced Economy – Excerpt B

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 12 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

You know, in a balanced economy there should be proper adjustment among agriculture, industry and commerce. For example, a fixed percentage of people should be engaged in agriculture, another fixed percentage in industry and some percentage in commerce. Otherwise there will be no equipoise or equilibrium in the socio-economic sphere of life.

Unfortunately no such adjustment exists in any country of the world today. Even in industrially advanced countries like Great Britain there is no proper adjustment. While England is developed, Scotland is backward. Even among the counties of England, some are developed and some are backward. Lancaster, for instance, is highly developed but Yorkshire is undeveloped. Sussex, Essex and Kent are not equally developed.

In Bengal some districts are highly developed whereas other districts are backward. The economic structure is not properly balanced, and due to this people suffer. For example, Calcutta, Hooghly, Howrah, Burdwan and 24 Parganas are industrially developed, but the neighbouring districts of Midnapore, Bankura, Birbhum and Murshidabad are backward. So you must try to bring about an industrial revolution in the country. Just as there was a French Revolution, there should be an industrial revolution in Bengal.

For this industrial revolution we must not depend upon raw materials from foreign countries. Remember that no country should depend on imported raw materials for development. Indigenous raw materials, that is, materials available within the country itself, must be used for this purpose. Those who love society – those who love the people of their country and are keen to bring about their socio-economic elevation – must think in terms of an industrial revolution based on the raw materials available in their own socio-economic unit.

The districts of North Bengal – Coochbehar, Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling and West Dinajpur – can produce and supply enough raw materials for industrial development. We must utilize the available raw materials. For example, Coochbehar district can supply jute and tobacco; Jalpaiguri district can supply pineapple fibres; and western Jalpaiguri district can supply jute fibres. Malda district can supply mango; textiles; silk; rice bran for producing edible rice bran oil; and jute and maize which can be used to make paper. The Malda silk industry can successfully compete with Chinese and Japanese silk, but unfortunately Malda, which has so much industrial potential, is the third poorest district in Bengal.

These things should be done, and they should be done in a short span of time. No industry in Bengal should depend on raw materials imported from outside.

You should bring about this revolution. You should collectively chalk out plans and programmes and demand such a change, such a revolution. Do not delay.

Quadri-Dimensional Economy

Published in:
A Few Problems Solved Part 7
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 12 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

official source: A Few Problems Solved Part 7 (as "The Parts of the Economy")

this version: is the printed Proutist Economics, 1st edition, version (obvious spelling, punctuation and typographical mistakes only may have been corrected). I.e., this is the most up-to-date version as of the present Electronic Edition.

Published in Prout in a Nutshell Part 12 as “The Parts of the Economy”.

A developed economy should consist of four parts – people’s economy, psycho-economy, commercial economy and general economy. This quadri-dimension of the economy is a vast expansion on the contemporary and co-contemporary conceptions of economic activity.

Most economists today understand only a little of the principles of general economy and something of commercial economy, but both of these parts are still in an undeveloped stage. People’s economy and psycho-economy are totally overlooked by modern economists, and as such could find no place in the present mode of economic thinking.

People’s economy deals with the essential needs of the people in general – the production, distribution, marketing, shipping, storage, pricing, sales, freight charges, pro forma costing, and all related activities of such essential needs. Most importantly, it is directly concerned with the guaranteed provision of minimum requirements such as food, clothing, housing, medical treatment, education, transportation, energy and irrigation water. Continuous improvement in and ready availability of these requirements is the key factor in people’s economy.

The minimum requirements can be assured through guaranteed purchasing capacity which should be enshrined in the constitution as a fundamental or cardinal human right. This will give the citizens of the country legal power if their minimum requirements are not met, hence the necessity of purchasing capacity will be reinforced by constitutional law. As people’s economy will deal with minimum requirements and people’s subsistence problems, it must take precedence over other parts of the economy.

People’s economy should also be concerned with the development of both private and cooperative industries. Private industries would be limited in size and scope to prevent monopoly production and exploitation, and would be required to function as cooperatives once they grow too large. Cooperative industries are the best means of independently organizing people so that they take collective responsibility for their livelihood.

People’s economy also includes employment for all; the eradication of mass poverty; the development of rural economy; the phase-wise socialization of land into the hands of those who work physically or intellectually for proper production; practical training programmes to impart skills which enable people to find employment in their immediate urban or rural locality; work placement; and the transportation, trans-shipment, loading and unloading of any materials, even if they are not economically viable in the short-term. It is also concerned with the generation of cheap power and the supply of water, which are essential if people are to control their local economies. Finally, it includes economic decentralization, cooperative dynamo and block-level planning.

Take the example of Bengal. The following programme based on the provision of the minimum requirements may be adopted to improve the economic standard of Bengal.

Food: Although Bengal is fertile it is divided into two parts – areas short of rainfall, and areas with no shortages of rainfall but which experience water shortages in winter. In both parts water conservation is required. The irrigation problem can be solved by any of several methods, including shift irrigation, lift irrigation, tank irrigation and small-scale river projects. The quality of water varies among different rivers. Some water is sweet, and discriminating use of this water can improve agricultural production. Different crops, fruits and vegetables can be grown all over Bengal, which is capable of feeding its entire population of around seventy million people through its own resources if they are properly managed.

Clothing: The type of clothing that people wear depends primarily on climatic conditions and the availability of raw materials. In Bengal, four major raw materials are available for clothing – cotton, mulberry silk, non-mulberry silk, and synthetic silk and other materials. Bengal can become self-sufficient in cotton, silk and synthetic materials, and can even produce a surplus for export to other regions. Mulberry silk is ideally suited to Bengal because it requires a slightly dry climate which is found in eastern Bengal. Non-mulberry silk can also be grown throughout Bengal. Fibres can be produced from copra, rice husks, bamboo, coconut shells, banana leaves and pineapple leaves, which are all widely available. Bengal can also grow wool, and even jute can be used for clothing.

Housing: Construction materials are abundantly available throughout Bengal. Three essential requirements are sand, lime and cement. The clay soil of Bengal is suitable for manufacturing bricks, fire-bricks and tiles, while enormous limestone deposits have been discovered. Bengal can be self-sufficient in the production of building materials, and can also export to other regions. Industries which manufacture construction materials can be quite profitable.

Medicine: Bengal is richly endowed with both herbal and mineral medicines. The major ailments of Bengal are fever and stomach diseases. It is the practice of nature to abundantly produce those herbs which cure the common diseases of the people in that locality. Some districts in Bengal are suitable for herb cultivation, while other districts are rich in mineral medicines.

Education: One’s mother tongue is the natural medium of expression, hence Bengali should be the medium of instruction in Bengali schools. English, which is presently the global language, should be the second language, so higher education should be imparted in English. Sanskrit should also be taught to enrich the cultural heritage of Bengal.

Education materials such as paper and ink are also available in Bengal. Paper can be manufactured from different grasses and plants which can be readily grown in several districts. Ink can be manufactured from synthetic processes or from indigo.

Energy and transportation: Until solar energy can be manufactured cheaply, other energy sources such as hydroelectricity, thermal power, tidal power and wind power can be utilized. All the raw materials necessary for transportation are also available, including rubber, steel, mica, mercury, silver, copper, quartz and manganese. Hence, Bengal can develop all kinds of transportation.

While people’s economy is concerned primarily with the provision of the minimum requirements of life, psycho-economy is concerned with increasing the psychic pabula of the individual and collective mind through appropriate economic activity. People’s economy will be the main concern of undeveloped and developing countries, but psycho-economy will gain increasing importance in the future once the problems of subsistence are gradually solved. Psycho-economy will be of major importance in a highly developed and mechanized economy where people may only work a few hours a week and have much spare time.

Psycho-economy has two branches. The first branch endeavours to eradicate exploitative and unjust economic practices, behaviours and structures. It will counter all economic and psycho-economic exploitation and make people aware of how capitalists, in their singular or collective roles, exploit society and create unhealthy, artificial demands which not only poison the mind but encourage dangerous habits detrimental to psychic sanctity and expansion. The first and foremost duty of psycho-economics is to wage a tireless fight against all degenerating and dehumanizing economic trends in society.

The second branch of psycho-economy develops and enhances the psychic pabula of the individual and collective minds. This branch is virtually unknown today, but it will become an extremely important branch of economics in the future. It will ensure equilibrium and equipoise in all levels of the economy. It will find new and creative solutions to economic problems to nurture the maximum utilization of psychic and spiritual potentialities. Psycho-economics will add to the glaring glamour of economics.

This part of the economy is concerned with the development of scientific, efficient methods of production and distribution which will not incur loss and where output will exceed input. The aim of commercial economy is to ensure the maximum utilization and rational distribution of resources for the benefit of all.

Although some development has occurred in both commercial and general economy, there is scope for much greater development.

PROUT advocates a three-tiered industrial structure which includes key industries managed by the immediate government, cooperatives, and privately owned enterprises. Key industries will function on a “no profit, no loss” principle. General economy includes the organization of the industrial structure and the coordination of economic planning at all levels to ensure collective welfare.

These four parts of the economy should be integrated and adjusted according to Neo-Humanistic principles to ensure the maximum utilization and rational distribution of all resources, and to harmonize human progress with all creation.

Pramá – 1 / Dynamic Equilibrium and Equipoise

Published in:
A Few Problems Solved Part 8
Neohumanism in a Nutshell Part 2 [a compilation]
Pramá [a compilation]
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 2 Part 9 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

official source: A Few Problems Solved Part 8

Triguńátmiká srśt́imátrká asheśátrikońa dhárá. That is, “In the primordial phase of creation, the three attributional principles [[of the Cosmic Operative Principle]] evolve countless geometric figures which all eventually get transformed into triangles of forces (guńatrikońa).” Whenever there are more than three forces operating, the tendency is invariably to form a stable triangular figure.

As long as this guńatrikońa or guńayantraka is in a balanced state, the sentient is converted into mutative, the mutative into static, and the static into sentient. This process of mutual conversion has been going on endlessly.

Due to this homomorphic conversion, the balance of the triangle of forces is maintained. But in this process of constant metamorphosis, a stage comes when, due to the pressure of the static Prakrti, the balance of the triangle is lost and the process of creation begins through one of its vertices: there ensues in the flow of creation a lokatrikońa. Human existence is trifarious – physical, psychic and spiritual. These three aspects give rise to pramátrikońa or lokatrikońa in individual entities as well as in the collective body.

Now, what is the actual meaning of pramá? The word pramá is derived as the root má prefixed by pra and suffixed by d́a and t́á. The meaning of the root verb má is “to measure”, “to fathom”. So the etymological meaning of pramá is “balance”. In English the two words “equilibrium” and “equipoise” are used in this sense, but there is some practical difference between these two words. “Equilibrium” is used in the sense of balance in physical strength and “equipoise” is used in the sense of balance in weight. Suppose there is a tug-of-war between two parties. If both the parties are equally strong, neither party is able to pull the other party towards itself; that is, there is a physical equilibrium between the two parties. Take another case. Suppose there is a weight of one kilo on one side of a scale and on the other side there is one kilo of brinjal. As there is equality of weight on both sides, the scale is evenly balanced. This balanced state in weight is called “equipoise”. Equilibrium and equipoise are collectively known as pramá.

Just as pramá is indispensable in individual life, it is indispensable in collective life. The superiority or excellence of the social structure, culture or civilization of a community of people is derived from the degree of pramá which that community attains in its individual and collective life. It is somewhat strange that although human beings came onto the earth about a million years ago, and although human civilization started about fifteen thousand years ago, human beings could not bring about perfect balance or pramá in the three spheres of individual and collective life. And what is even more strange is that they did not even feel the necessity of establishing this pramá in individual and collective life.

For instance, though the western world has made some material progress and tried to bring about a certain degree of pramá in the physical sphere, in the past no sincere effort was made to establish pramá in the spiritual sphere, nor is such effort being made to do this even today. Of course, it made some effort to bring about pramá in the psychic sphere by bringing about some intellectual development. India is the only country in the world where at least some attempt was made to introduce pramá in the spiritual sphere, but it did not reach the state of perfection. Like the West, India also made some attempt to establish pramá in the psychic sphere, but that attempt was not remarkably successful.

If we analyse the history of different [[communities of people of]] the world, we notice that despite their tremendous physical, psychic and spiritual potentialities, they did not utilize the opportunity they had to establish pramá in individual and collective life. This was due to their defective ideas and practices and their faulty social and economic systems. They were not able to strengthen human society by developing different branches of knowledge, by evolving culture and civilization, or by bringing about intellectual and spiritual advancement. In the absence of pramá, they could not make the fullest possible contribution to human society by developing different branches of human knowledge, uplifting the standard of culture and civilization, and raising the level of intellect and intuition.

Nature has been bountiful to each and every region of the world, and has endowed us with enormous wealth both on and under the surface of the earth. In fact, different areas of the world are full of agricultural, mineral, aquatic, medicinal and forest resources, yet in many economic regions of the world there is utmost poverty, a low standard of living, and cultural and industrial backwardness. As a result, with the curse of the acute scarcity of food, clothes and accommodation, as well as lack of educational facilities, even today in the twentieth century when material science claims to have made rapid progress, millions of people are fighting for their physical survival. Due to the blessings of nature, there is no shortage of physical resources in any economic region. But due to the lack of benevolent propensities, those materials have not been utilized for social and economic development. Consequently, the people’s basic physical necessities (food, clothes, accomodation, medical treatment and education) could not be met. Obviously, there is a gross lack of pramá in the physical sphere.

Let us take the case of Ráŕh – the starting-point of human civilization. Nature has provided the hilly land of Ráŕh with enormous resources. In the different strata of old hard rock there are gold, silver, copper, mercury, mica, manganese and many other minerals. There are large deposits of quartz and various types of other valuable minerals in the stratum of hard igneous rock. There is good quality coal and sand in the strata of ancient alluvial rock and dead rock. Western Ráŕh is rich in mineral wealth. The soil of eastern Ráŕh, having been formed from the seabed, is comparatively new. There is a great possibility that mineral ore may be extracted from it, especially in those areas which were covered by a sargasso sea in ancient times.

Eastern Ráŕh is as rich in surface wealth as western Ráŕh is rich in underground wealth. The sort of rich fertile land we find in Burdwan, Hooghly, Howrah, eastern Midnapore and Kandi subdivision is extremely rare in the world. The reason is that the rivers of Ráŕh such as the Damodar, Ajay, Mayuraksi, Kangsavati, Suvarnarekha, Vakreshwar, Kopai, Shilavati and Hinglo have carried alluvial soil enriched with calcium and various mineral resources to eastern Ráŕh and made the surface of the land very rich, as precious as gold. In that fertile soil there can be bumper harvests of paddy, wheat, sugar cane, pulses, cotton, mulberry and non-mulberry silk, and many other agricultural products. The laterite soil of Ráŕh is so rich with calcium that good-quality apples, pears, oranges, papayas, guavas, grapes, custard-apples and many other fruits can be grown in abundance. By introducing various kinds of irrigation systems (small-scale irrigation, lift irrigation, excavation of tanks, etc.), efforts may be made to grow orchards and to cultivate three crops of rice in a year (early autumn, winter and summer). On the basis of the tremendous potentiality for agricultural production, numerous agrico-industries and agro-industries could be established in Ráŕh, but unfortunately this potentiality has not been tapped so far. The forests of Ráŕh are also full of resources. They have an abundance of sal [Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.], piyasal [Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.], hizal [Barringtonia acutangula Gaertn.], palásh [Butea frondosa Koenig-ex Roxb.], ashok [Saraca indica Linn.], kusum [Schleichera trijuga Willd.], jám [Eugenia jambolana Linn.], jackfruit and other trees.

So although there are enormous natural resources of various types in Ráŕh, its people are undernourished, half naked, poorly accommodated, illiterate and ridden with disease. Had the economic planning of the country been based on the principle of pramá, the social and economic picture of Ráŕh would be completely different from what it is now.

There is another economic region, the adjacent state of Orissa, which is equally rich in natural resources, and yet equally poor. The economic potential of Orissa, abundant in tremendous agricultural, mineral and forest resources like Ráŕh, is very bright. On its long coastal belt there is immense potential for starting large numbers of farms and factories. There are also good prospects for the growth of the iron and steel industries and the shipbuilding industry, for the [[port industry]], and for the generation of tidal electricity. Moreover, on the basis of the agricultural resources of Orissa, thousands of agro-industries and agrico-industries can be started. But due to the absence of any social and economic planning based on pramá in this region, a large percentage of the people of Orissa are living in abject poverty.

Why should we single out only Ráŕh and Orissa? Almost all the countries of the world are faced with nearly the same sort of economic crises due to a lack of pramá.

The human mind has two main functions: thinking and recollecting. The human being is predominantly a mental being. So the greatness and excellence of human beings lies in their thinking capacity, intellectual subtlety and brilliance, and wisdom. Human beings, in the process of expressing their creative faculties, externalize the colourful and varied ideas of their psychic world in a variety of ways: on canvas with colours and brushes, in poetry and literature with the strokes of their pens, and in sculpture with the subtle use of hammers and chisels. Their philosophical ideas, their scientific observations and experiments, and the study and analysis of various branches of knowledge are exclusively within the psychic preserve of the human mind, and have been honoured as the golden harvest of the psychic realm. But if there is a lack of pramá in the psychic sphere, then many omissional and commissional mistakes and defects are bound to enter into their art, architecture, literature, philosophy, science and other branches of human knowledge. Dance may lose its rhythm, painting may lack proportion, music may lose the harmony of its melody and rhythm, and in the various branches of literature there may be an overgrowth of the parasitic weeds of immature expression.

Suppose a painter is drawing a picture of a small pond. The pond is full of beautiful transparent water upon which sits a full-blossomed lotus. Suppose the pond occupies a square inch of space, whereas the petals of the lotus occupy two square inches of space. In this case the painter has clearly lost the basic sense of proportion and artistic [[balance, has]] violated the principle of pramá in the creation of art. Naturally, in the absence of pramá, artistic creation cannot be symmetrical or systematic.

Let us take the case of poetry. Successful poetry is a balanced blending of idea, language, metre and expressional beauty. But if a poet has only a flair for language and depth of ideas and is not skilled in metrical rhythm or cannot introduce subtle beauty into his or her composition, then the poetry will suffer from lack of pramá. Poetry devoid of pramá cannot attain the height of success.

Similarly, song is the inner blending of idea, language, melody and rhythm. In the absence of any of the four, pramá will be lost and the song will lose its charm and beauty. It will be nothing but a random composition, a few lines of lifeless words.

Philosophy began in the distant past in an effort to understand the mysteries of creation. Various scholars in different branches of human knowledge established various schools of philosophy in different ages. Some of these philosophies were idealistic, some were materialistic. What is the purpose of philosophy? The purpose is to discover the unmistakeable link between the Creator and the creation. But philosophers, in spite of their sincere efforts, have not yet been able to build a bridge between the relative world and the absolute world. It seems philosophy has lost its way in a labyrinth of metaphysics. The defective conclusions of philosophers have made respective schools of philosophy merely dogmatic intellectual extravaganza. Regarding these kinds of philosophies, Lord Shiva said, Lokavyámohakáraka. That is, “They are the cause of psychic diseases.”

The main purpose of spirituality is to discover Parama Shiva who is lying quiescent in every human existence, and to establish oneness between the Macrocosm and microcosms, between the Cosmic Being and human beings, between Paramátma and jiivátmá.

Very often, ignorant of real spirituality and goaded by religious dogma, people undertake long and hazardous journeys to places of pilgrimage, sometimes even selling their earthly possessions such as houses and cultivable land to make the trip possible. They hope to attain virtue by taking a holy dip in sacred rivers. Needless to say this not only causes a loss of energy, time and money, but also causes much trouble and brings no spiritual gain. This is one of the glaring examples of lack of pramá in the spiritual sphere.

It has already been said that the importance of pramá in all three phases of human existence is tremendous. Physical progress is deeply associated with the psychic and spiritual development of human beings. When the balanced state of material development, having reached a supreme height, maintains proper adjustment with the psychic and spiritual elevation of individuals and the collectivity, it is called pramá saḿvrddhi.

Similarly, pramá rddhi occurs when the balanced psychic stratum attains the peak of progress and maintains adjustment with the material and spiritual progress of individuals and the collectivity. In this state of pramá rddhi, the ectoplasmic stuff of the mind gets powdered down. It develops not only in mass and volume, but moves forward towards the pinnacled intellect (agryábuddhi), while maintaining psychic adjustment, in order to attain sharp penetration of the mind.

Finally, pramá siddhi is a state in which the mind, having transcended the psycho-spiritual stratum, attains a pinnacled state and absolute equilibrium in spiritual progress, and at the same time maintains an adjustment with the physical and psychic development of individuals and the collectivity.

Lokatrikońa or pramátrikońa of individuals and the collectivity is attained in the physical, psychic and spiritual spheres. In the flow of evolution, lokatrikońa occurs at the first phase of creation emanating from the first expression of Supreme Consciousness.

In the first phase there is balance in the lokatrikońa of individuals, but in subsequent stages, due to the influence of time, space and person and the clash of propensities, the balance of lokatrikońa or pramátrikońa gets lost. This state of loss of balance in pramatrikońa or lokatrikońa is called “the stage of derangement”.

If at this stage the lost pramá is re-established, well and good. If it is not re-established, the lokatrikońa degenerates and enters the stage of disruption. If people fail to counteract this trend of downward movement, the lokatrikońa further descends to the stage of degeneration.

Human society today has reached the stage of degeneration and, as a result, is lost in the wilderness of economic bankruptcy, social unrest, cultural degeneration and religious superstition.

Once the society reaches the state of degeneration, the balance in the lokatrikońa cannot be immediately restored. Rather, society will have to be lifted up step by step from the stage of degeneration to the stage of disruption, and then from the stage of disruption to the stage of derangement; and in the final stage balance in pramátrikońa or lokatrikońa will have to be established. Although all three aspects of life – physical, psychic and spiritual – carry equal significance, the physical stage should be given greater importance in the initial stage. If pramá is lost in the physical sphere, the antisocial elements will have the upper hand in society. They will pollute the entire social environment. Consequently, pramá in the mental and spiritual spheres will be lost, and the mental condition will further degenerate. So, the establishment of pramátrikońa or lokatrikońa in the physical sphere is the foremost necessity.

Now the question is, what should be done to restore order in lokatrikońa and pramátrikońa? First, we must divide each stratum into various substrata. For example, we may divide the physical stratum into the following substrata: agriculture, industry, trade and commerce, medicine, irrigation, physical education, etc. Here it should be mentioned that as far as education is concerned, the science subjects come within the scope of the physical stratum as they are directly concerned with the material world. On the other hand, the humanities subjects (language, literature, history, philosophy, etc.) come within the scope of the psychic stratum. By forming subtriangles for each substratum, a greater degree of balance can be established. The physical stratum will then have to be gradually elevated from the stage of degeneration to the stage of disruption. Later, after restoring a greater balance in the subtriangles, the physical stratum will have to be raised from the stage of disruption to the stage of derangement. There will be a perfect balance in the lokatrikońa or pramátrikońa of the physical stratum when all the subtriangles are in perfect equilibrium.

Similarly, there are many substrata in the psychic stratum, such as physico-psychic, psychic, psycho-spiritual, etc. When the degree of balance within these substrata increases, the psychic stratum will be elevated from the state of degeneration to the state of disruption, and from the state of disruption to the state of derangement; and finally there will be a perfect balance in lokatrikońa or pramátrikońa in the psychic stratum.

Now, let us come to the question of the spiritual stratum. It too, may be divided into several substrata, although they will be comparatively few in number. The degree of balance within the substrata will also have to be increased gradually. Thus, the spiritual stratum will be raised through the stages of degeneration, disruption and derangement. Balance in the lokatrikońa of the spiritual stratum will then be established.

To restore balance in the lokatrikońa or pramátrikońa of the physical stratum, the following four factors should be considered:

1) The physical demand at present and the physical demand in the foreseeable future.

2) The physical supply at present and the physical supply in the foreseeable future.

4) The Five Fundamental Principles of PROUT as they apply to the physical stratum.

For example, while trying to solve the food problems of any socio-economic unit, the subtriangle of agriculture will have to be created. A proper irrigation system may have to be introduced, and high-breed varieties of seeds may have to be used. By extensive cultivation of land, using tractors and necessary fertilizers, three or four crops may be harvested every year. The proper crops for the proper soils will have to be selected. Agricultural cooperatives and agricultural producers cooperatives will have to be started, and farmers’ brigades will have to be formed. Agriculture should be conducted on the basis of the principle of consumption, and not the principle of profit. There should be a proper preservation and distribution of agricultural products. A proper balance in the lokatrikońa or pramátrikońa of agriculture will help establish balance in the lokatrikońa or pramátrikońa in the physical stratum.

In the same way, if there is a perfect balance in the subtriangles of the substrata, there will also be a balance in the lokatrikońa or pramátrikońa in the psychic and spiritual strata.

When all the lokatrikońas or pramatrikońas of the physical, psychic and spiritual strata collectively form the final lokatrikońa or pramátrikońa, its central point will coincide in a perfect balance with the central point of the supreme guńatrikońa. A perfect state of balance will be established between individuals and the collectivity, and between the collectivity and the Cosmos. This supreme balance in all spheres will bring a perfect state of pramá everywhere. The society will attain pramá saḿvrddhi in the physical stratum, pramá rddhi in the psychic stratum and pramá siddhi in the spiritual stratum. That will be the stage of all-round welfare, progress and perfection for all humanity, for the entire living world.

Minimum Requirements and Maximum Amenities

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 17 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

There are many attractions in society, and it is the nature of human beings to run after these attractions. Communism exploited this human tendency by promising to give equal wealth to all. But the mundane resources in the world are limited, so is it possible to provide equal wealth to all? No, and the attempt to do so is nothing but a dazzling ostentation. Now communism has met its end. Communism was nothing but a “bogusism” – a mere ostentation of verbose language and nothing else.

Rather than trying to give equal wealth to all, the proper approach is to ensure that everyone is guaranteed the minimum requirements of life. As the income of people increases, the radius of their minimum requirements should also increase. Just to bridge the gap between the more affluent people and the common people, we have to increase the minimum requirements of all. In addition, the maximum amenities should be provided to meritorious persons to enable them to render greater service to society. This should be done by setting aside some wealth for those with special qualities, but the provision of the maximum amenities should not go against the common interest.

However, something more can be added. Besides increasing the maximum amenities of meritorious people, we also have to increase the maximum amenities available to common people. Meritorious people will earn more than common people, and this earning will include their maximum amenities. But the common people should not be deprived of maximum amenities, so there should be efforts to give them as much of the maximum amenities as possible. There will still be a gap between the maximum amenities of the common people and the maximum amenities of the meritorious, but there should be constant efforts to reduce this gap. Thus, the common people should also receive more and more amenities. If maximum amenities are not provided to common people, no doubt there will be progress in society, but there will always remain the scope for imperfection in future. What constitutes both the minimum requirements and the maximum amenities should be ever increasing. This idea is a new appendix to PROUT.

If the maximum amenities of meritorious people become excessively high, then the minimum requirements of common people should be immediately increased. For example, if a person with special qualities has a motor bike and an ordinary person has a bicycle, there is a balanced adjustment. But if the person with special qualities has a car, then we should immediately try to provide the common people with motor bikes.

There is a proverb which refers to plain living and high thinking, but what is plain living? Plain living eighty years ago was not the same as it is today, so plain living changes from age to age. The standard of value also varies from age to age. Thus, both the minimum requirements and the maximum amenities will vary from age to age, and both will be ever increasing. If this were not so, there would be no economic progress in society.

So, our approach should be to provide the minimum requirements of the age to all, the maximum amenities of the age to those with special qualities according to the degree of their merit, and the maximum amenities to the common people as well. The minimum requirements of the age as per their money value plus the maximum amenities of the age as per their money value are to be fixed and refixed, and fixed again and refixed again, and so on. In this way you must elevate the standard of the people – you must go on elevating their standard of living.

The amenities of life are those things which make life easy. The word “amenity” comes from the Old Latin word amenus which means “to fulfil the desire” or “to make the position easy”. Amenities mean physical and psychic longings. Whatever will satisfy the physical and psychic longings of the people will be the amenities of the age. Common people should be favoured with maximum amenities. For example, previously people used to dig a well to get drinking water, and then they carried the drinking water to their houses. Later water tanks were constructed, and now drinking water comes through pipes. In this way the amenities of life have increased and life has become easier. Though the aim is to get water, the system of getting it has become more effortless and more convenient.

Take another example. Suppose school children receive the minimum requirements of life. If they are provided with free snacks, this amenity will be over and above the minimum requirements. Again, in most trains there are first and second class compartments. First class passangers already get special facilities, but if free tea or coffee is given to the passengers in the second class compartments, it will be considered an amenity.

More and more amenities will have to be provided to the common people with the progress of society. This process will generate the impetus to collect and utilize more and more resources, and the proper utilization of the collective resources will elevate the standard of living of both the common mass and the meritorious people.

As the need for the minimum requirements is fulfilled and the supply of the maximum amenities increases, the struggle for daily subsistence will gradually decrease and people’s lives will become increasingly easy and enjoyable. For this reason PROUT guarantees the minimum requirements and the maximum amenities to all.

The root vidh prefixed by su and suffixed by ac and t́á equals suvidhá which means “the pabulum asked for”. Kuvidhá means “the pabulum not asked for”. If you are travelling by train and you see someone take a snack of delicious food, you will have a natural urge or longing to enjoy the same delicacies. This is a natural longing for physical pabulum. Those things which your body wants are the natural amenities. Natural amenities include all the longings of nature. They include all natural physiological longings such as urination, defecation and eating when one is hungry. Common people should be provided with more and more natural amenities to make their lives easy.

They should also be provided with more and more super-natural amenities. Common people experience much stress and strain – they should be freed from this tension. For example, the rural people of India always worry about their crops. If the rains are late or if they fail, paddy production will suffer; if the climate is too cold or not cold enough, the winter crop will be adversely affected. The common people should be freed from all these stresses and strains. This can be achieved through the provision of super-natural amenities which can be developed artificially through science and technology. For example, better agricultural techniques and the construction of small-scale dams to conserve water and improve irrigation can help relieve poor rural people of their stresses and strains. Even simple techniques can increase crop yields. For instance, if the smoke from burning wood chips is made to pass through a field of mustards seed, the flowers of the mustard seeds will bloom immediately and increase the production of the crop.

We should provide common people with both natural and super-natural amenities according to the physical capacity, the psychic capacity and the technical capacity of the state. This approach will ensure that human beings get enough amenities so that their lives become satisfying and congenial.

The minimum requirements must be guaranteed to all human beings, and under the environmental conditions concerned – that is, the existing environmental conditions – there should be maximum amenities. You should satisfy the thirst for physical and psychic longings – for physical and psychic pabula – under the concerning conditions. So maximum amenities are to be guaranteed to all under the environmental conditions concerned, which means keeping in view such factors as the temporal, topographical, geographical, social and psychic conditions.

What is the difference among surroundings, atmosphere, and environment? “Surrounding” means “everything physical, either directly physical or psycho-physical, that surrounds.” “Atmosphere” means “the nature of different expressions in the surroundings, such as water, air, air pressure, temperature, etc.” “Environment” means “that which controls the characteristic of inanimate and animate beings.”

One age will go and another will come, and human longings will also change. In one age a particular type of breakfast is accepted as the standard, and in the next age it will be considered substandard. Today people eat bread and butter, but according to the standard of the next age people may eat fried rice or sweet rice. Thus, the maximum amenities of life should be guaranteed to each and every individual, and their standard should be continuously elevated.

The jurisdiction of maximum amenities will go on expanding with the progress of human beings. Human beings are marching ahead, and their longing for different psycho-physical pabula is also increasing. The minimum requirements of the age must be guaranteed, and the maximum amenities must also be guaranteed. Maximum amenities must be provided in the existing environment.

Can human thirst be fully quenched? Can human hunger be fully satisfied? Why is it that human thirst knows no limitations? From PROUT we are moving to psycho-philosophy. In the relative world human thirst cannot be satisfied. Human beings are the progeny of the Supreme Progenitor, therefore human thirst is unlimited. All the properties of the Supreme are ensconced in human existence, and not only in human existence, but in each and every entity of the expressed universe. Can physical thirst, psychic thirst and spiritual thirst be quenched? Only spiritual thirst can be quenched. Unification of the unit with the Cosmic can quench the spiritual thirst. The physical body has certain limitations. It functions within very strict limitations. The mind has a far bigger jurisdiction, but it is also limited.

Every system has its merits and demerits. The demerit of this system is that as life becomes easier and easier, the physical capacity of human beings will gradually decrease. In ancient times people used to walk great distances with bare feet, carrying only a single cloth, but today people rarely move without footwear or without taking proper provisions. It is a fact that human strength will decrease in the future, but with the progress of society we have no alternative but to accept this situation. A day will come when the eyes and the bones in the human body will become weak. Almost all people will wear glasses and have false teeth. In the future there will also be tremendous changes in the structure of human beings. Human intellect will become sharper, the cranium will become larger and the nerve fibres will become more complex. Not only will such changes occur in human beings, similar changes will occur in animals and plants too.

The African elephant has a large body and a small head and it cannot be easily domesticated. In comparison the Indian elephant has a small body and a large head. It is more intelligent and it can be easily domesticated.

As life becomes increasingly easy, there will be greater opportunities for intellectual pursuits. A day will come when there will be hardly any need for human beings to work. This may sound strange today and perhaps we might not like to hear such a thing, but that day will surely come. Physicality will be transformed into more and more intellectuality, and intellectuality will be transformed into the culminating point of spirituality. To move ahead from physicality to intellectuality is the Proutistic order. It is the surest movement of human life – it is the surest movement of human destiny.

This type of movement to intellectuality will also take place in certain kinds of animals, such as dogs, monkeys and cows. It may be that in 1,000 years monkeys will reach the stage of evolution that human beings have achieved at present. At that time human beings will be making tremendous progress in the realms of intellectuality and intuition. The human beings of that future age will be very sensitive. The efferent nerves will be more active than the afferent nerves, and subtle experiences will be more common than they are now. Today human beings seldom have subtle experiences, but in the future they will occur naturally and spontaneously. The functional jurisdiction of the brain will also increase. Similarly, many animals will become more sensitive and their vocabulary will increase. With intellectual development vocabulary increases, and the number of words in a language also increases. The functional jurisdiction of the brain of animals will increase too.

With the help of spiritual practices, the human beings of the future will increase the functional jurisdiction of their brains with accelerating speed. People may think that they cannot make rapid spiritual progress unless the size of the brain, and hence the size of the cranium, is increased. But this is not so because human beings can increase the jurisdiction of their thinking.

Today human beings are progressing in the realm of intellectuality. To attain the culminating point of spirituality the human beings of today have to face less obstacles than the people of the past such as Maharśi Vishvamitra, Maharśi Agastya, etc. The development of the glands and the amount of the hormone secretions is much greater than 100,000 years ago, and the glands will develop and increase their secretions by much more in the next 100,000 years. In 100,000 years, human beings will conceive of things which are beyond the conception of the human beings of today. These types of changes will occur within the social and economic jurisdiction of PROUT.

As human beings gradually move along the path of evolution, they will come to increasingly understand that humans are more psychic than physical. In fact human beings are machines, but they are physico-psychic machines. With psychic changes physical changes will also occur. The human beings of the future will feel strange when they see the structure of the human beings of today. Similarly, the humans of today would feel disturbed if they could see what the humans of the future will look like.

According to human psychology, people do not like to think much about the future. Rather they prefer to dwell on the past. The reason is that the future may or may not happen as human beings plan, so there is always a risk involved in speculating about the future.

One day the physical and psychic structure of human beings will become divine. It may happen that human beings will not like this mundane world anymore. They will then lose their fascination with the transitory world. They will think that it is better to merge into Supreme Consciousness and leave the world forever. This transformation in human psychology will come about through spiritual practices. So I advise each human being that as long as you are alive, you should try to build yourself in a nice way, in a complete way. But you should not only build yourselves, you should also build human society in the same way. To achieve this you will have to take the help of PROUT.

The progressive availability of the maximum amenities of life will be guaranteed in PROUT, satisfying physical needs. The satisfied physical needs will lessen the physical obstacles which inhibit human progress, and human beings will experience all-round development, especially in the intellectual stratum. Human beings will get the opportunity to develop in the intellectual stratum without any hindrances.

The truth of humanity, the veracity of humanity, will go on increasing in different areas of expression. That is why I say that there must be guaranteed minimum requirements and guaranteed maximum amenities for all human beings, and that these must go on increasing. These amenities must be good for the physical and psychic development of human beings, or at least for one of the two.

As you know, physical pabulum is limited, so the mind continually runs from one thing to another. This process goes on in a never ending order. But in the realm of intuition the goal is infinite. When aspirants come into this realm, their desires, their longings, are fully satisfied. Thus the controlling point is the spiritual order. Because the spiritual order is infinite, human beings have no control over it, but as the physical realm is finite, human beings can increase their sphere of activity in this realm. The attempt to do this is a never ending process, and there are infinite permutations and combinations in this endeavour, but the latent hunger in human beings will never be satisfied in this realm. The quest to satisfy this hunger can at best only lead to the threshold point of spirituality.

As human beings progress towards the realm of spirituality, they are helped on the one hand by PROUT, which guarantees minimum requirements and maximum amenities, and on the other hand by Neo-Humanistic outlook, which removes disparities. These two approaches help human beings in their progress and elevation. Finally the existential faculty merges in the Supreme.

PROUT touches the threshold point of spirituality. It also helps to lessen the obstacles in daily life. For example, many daily commuters have to leave their homes at 6:00 a.m. and return at 10:00 p.m. to secure their minimum requirements. But PROUT will guarantee the minimum requirements to all, so their daily burden will be lessened.

Neohumanism also touches the threshold point of spirituality. It helps the existential faculty reach the pinnacled state. Neohumanism will bring equality in the social sphere and remove all sorts of disparities, therefore human progress will be greatly accelerated.

When PROUT and Neohumanism are established, the whole existence of human beings will become effulgent in the attainment of the Supreme.

The world is moving ahead with its merits and demerits. The movement from imperfection to perfection is progress. In the physical and psychic realms progress is never ending, but because everything in these realms is limited, the hunger of human beings remains unsatisfied. In the spiritual realm, at the point of culmination, human hunger is fully satisfied. To satisfy human hunger in the physical and psychic realms there is PROUT and Neohumanism. But how can human hunger be satisfied in the subtlest realm? For this Ananda Marga philosophy is there. Movement beyond the threshold point of spirituality is beyond the scope of PROUT but within the realm of Ananda Marga philosophy. Our ideology is a happy blending of rationality and spirituality.

The human requirements of every age must be guaranteed. The minimum requirements must go on increasing according to the physical and psychic standard of human beings and according to the changes in climatic conditions, environment, etc. Thus the range of minimum requirements will go on increasing according to the range of human social conditions.

At present human beings are thinking about their own minimum requirements more than about the minimum requirements of animals and plants. A day is coming when some of the animals, if not all, will come within the realm of our social membership. Today we say that each and every human being will get the minimum requirements. Tomorrow we will say that the minimum requirements will also include the needs of dogs, cows, monkeys, etc. To fulfil these requirements, there should be more and more production.

The earth is not only for human beings, it is for other living beings also. So we will have to do something for them. The minimum requirements and maximum amenities should also be given to animals. Today cows, dogs and monkeys are developing; tomorrow more and more animals will be in this category. Animals will also develop longings for different psycho-physical pabula, so they should be guaranteed minimum requirements and maximum amenities too. We will have to do something for them also. This is the demand of Neohumanism, of Neo-Humanistic ideas. This demand should be fulfilled by PROUT.

According to the enlargement of human existential value and jurisdiction, psychic pabula will also increase. There should be maximum amenities for one and all, with more longing for physico-psychic objects of enjoyment. These amenities should be increased for the entire social order. There cannot be any full stop, any comma or any semi-colon in this progress.

Progress is never ending. Pabulum is also never ending. We should understand this. There cannot be any stop in the march of human progress. And not only in human progress, but in the physical and psychic worlds also. Geo-sentiment will die out; socio-sentiment will disappear; socio-economic sentiment will be eradicated. Finally a day will come when sentient sentiment will dominate. A day will come when human beings will get the maximum amenities, then human beings will reach the zenith. But is the provision of maximum amenities the zenith of service? It may be looked upon as the zenith; but because circumstances change, maximum amenities change. The provision of maximum amenities should be treated as a relative zenith point and not the supreme zenith.

So maximum amenities of life under the conditions concerned should be guaranteed, and they should go on increasing. We should communicate this idea to the masses and encourage them to help us in our noble mission.

Whenever we are thinking of implementing a theory we should feel that we are living in the present, then we should implement the theory. The order of Shiva was to march ahead maintaining association with present reality. This was the order of Shiva. Marxism completely violated this fundamental principle, which is why Marxism has been broken into pieces under the impact of the present circumstances.

[The intoxicating effect of my dream has been lost,
The string of my lyre has been broken.]

Suppose there is a bright lamp. Hundreds and thousands of insects will rush towards it and get burnt. Similarly, communism was like a bright lamp. Marxists built castles in the air. They propagated many tall talks but they never thought about the practical application of their socio-economic approach. They killed many innocent people and sent countless others to concentration camps in the name of so-called ideology. Stalin killed hundreds of thousands of people instead of helping them by providing amenities for all. In the name of doing good for the masses he killed so many people. This is not humanism. Today people have kicked communism out. In China the people recently demanded “common human liberty”. That was considered an offence, so they were crushed. Do not people have every right to demand common human liberty?

Whatever is feasible and practical has been said in PROUT. Marxism built castles in the air and encouraged the people to dream a meaningless dream. PROUT has not done this nor will PROUT do it. PROUT will do that which is feasible and practical.

If the common people and the meritorious people are treated as the same, the capable people will not be encouraged to develop their higher potentiality. This is the reason why the brain drain is happening in India. When talented people leave India, they leave it for good. Providing special amenities for those with special capabilities will stop the brain drain.

PROUT’s approach is to guarantee the minimum requirements for all, guarantee maximum amenities for all and guarantee special amenities for people with special capabilities. This approach will ensure ever increasing acceleration in the socio-economic sphere. The question of retardation does not arise; even the question of maintaining speed does not arise. There must be acceleration. Acceleration is the spirit of life, the spirit of existence, the spirit of the existential faculty. One may not be a genius, one may simply be a member of the ordinary public, and not properly accepted or respected by all, but even then one will get the minimum requirements and maximum amenities in an ever increasing manner according to the environmental conditions concerned, according to the demands of the day.

2) Special amenities are to be guaranteed to capable people. Special amenities are for people of special calibre as per the environmental condition of the particular age.

3) Maximum amenities are to be guaranteed to all, even to those who have no special qualities – to the common people of common calibre. Maximum amenities are to be guaranteed to all as per environmental conditions. These amenities are for those of ordinary calibre – the common people, the so-called downtrodden humanity.

4) All three above are never ending processes, and they will go on increasing according to the collective potentialities.

This appendix to our philosophy may be small, but it is of a progressive nature and a progressive character. It has far-reaching implications for the future. I hope you will realize its impact and all its potentialities.

Capitalism in Three Spheres

Published in:
A Few Problems Solved Part 9
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 13 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

While trying to fight against any sort of exploitation, first we must have a clear understanding of the nature of the exploitation. Today human society is subjected to ruthless exploitation by capitalists. Capitalist exploitation has brought humanity to the brink of disaster by spreading its exploitative tentacles into every aspect of human life.

According to PROUT, capitalist exploitation is perpetuated in three spheres – the physical sphere, which we are well aware of, and the intellectual and spiritual spheres. Each of these types of capitalist exploitation is equally dangerous.

To solve the problem of capitalist exploitation in the physical sphere, we will have to ensure that the movement of money does not become restricted or immobile in the hands of a few capitalists. The present economic system should be thoroughly transformed, and a comprehensive and completely new economic system should be built in its place. In this new system money will not be restricted or immobile in the hands of a few capitalists. The more the optimum mobility of money is kept unrestricted, the more it will strengthen and invigorate the socio-economic life of the collective body.

In the psychic sphere there is a noticeable lack of motivation and effort on the part of intelligent and educated people at present to properly utilize their acquired knowledge for the collective welfare. This is the psychology of an apathetic and elitist class who do not like to move from their privileged position to work for the welfare of the common people. This psychology gives rise to a special type of intellectual capitalism.

Intellectual capitalism causes several pressing problems in society. First, the literacy skills of a large part of the population are not developed. Secondly, the socio-economic consciousness of the indigenous people is not encouraged. Thirdly, unhealthy inferiority complexes and fear complexes influence the minds of the people so that they are kept psychically weak. Fourthly, the intellectual and moral development of human beings is hindered, so intellectual backwardness and irrationality become rampant in society. Finally, narrow sentiments like geo-sentiment and socio-sentiment start exerting a destructive influence on society. Consequently, intellectual exploitation, dogmatic theories and doctrines, and religious superstition and rituals become widespread.

Intellectual inertia has assumed dangerous proportions. Taking advantage of this intellectual stagnancy, rapacious capitalists deviously spread a subtle web of exploitation and suck the vitality of society. Through this process capitalists are able to perpetuate their insidious rule of exploitation.

People have been loudly protesting against capitalism for a long time, and on numerous occasions have launched agitations against capitalist exploitation. Remaining vigilant about people’s dissatisfaction with the capitalist system, capitalists have continually changed their methods of exploitation. For instance, they have bought off disgruntled intellectuals and used them as tools of exploitation in their economic schemes.

Capitalism has always adapted to changing circumstances. Thus we see that in different periods there have been different forms of capitalist exploitation such as feudalism, laissez-faire capitalism, imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, mixed economy, multinational corporations, etc. Today even communism, which was once a deadly weapon against capitalist exploitation, has become a blunt and obsolete tool.

Psycho-economic exploitation is the latest form of dangerous and all-devouring capitalist exploitation. It is a special type of exploitation which first weakens and paralyses people psychologically in various ways, and then exploits them economically. Some of the methods of psycho-economic exploitation include, first, the suppression of the indigenous language and culture of local people; secondly, the extensive propagation of pseudo-culture, exemplified by pornographic literature which debases people’s mind and particularly undermines the vitality of the youth; thirdly, the imposition of numerous restrictions on women, forcing them to be economically dependent on men; fourthly, an unpsychological education system with frequent political interference by vested interests; fifthly, the negation of dharma in the name of secularism; sixthly, the balkanization of society into numerous castes and groups; seventhly, the damaging of society by the use of unnatural and harmful methods of birth control; and eighthly, placing the control of different mass media, such as newspapers, radio and television, in the hands of capitalists. Both intellectual exploitation and psycho-economic exploitation are great dangers to the human race today.

To counteract this threat, powerful popular sentiments will have to be generated immediately for the liberation of intellect. For this, the first requisite factor is that intellectuals must keep their intellects pure and unblemished. Casting aside all their inertia and prejudices, intellectuals will have to mix with the common people and engage themselves in their welfare. They will have to assist the common people in their development and extend their support to all anti-exploitation movements. This approach will help to root out exploitation, stabilize the structure of society and expand the intellectual standard of the common people. Human society will move forward to a brilliant future with rapid steps.

Besides the physical and intellectual spheres, capitalism also exists in the spiritual realm. Some people neglect their family and society and go to caves in the mountains and perform arduous penance to fulfil their longing for spiritual emancipation. Because of their selfishness, they keep spiritual knowledge to themselves and do not bother to arouse spiritual awareness in individual and collective life. This is capitalism in the spiritual sphere. It is ultravires to the very spirit of spiritual practices, which is:

To a spiritualist, everything – right from the Creator down to a small blade of grass – is the manifestation of Supreme Consciousness. The state of equanimity is one of the main characteristics of spirituality. Without attaining this quality, one cannot establish oneselves in the supreme state, and one’s movement towards Supreme Consciousness will be hindered at every step. In ancient times many people found themselves in this tragic predicament.

Genuine spiritual practice is the birthright of all people. In all spheres of collective life – economic, political, social, etc. – a scientific and rational outlook is essential. The inculcation of cardinal human values is an urgent necessity. This is the demand of the age. Because such higher values are lacking in social life, there are many incongruities and confusions in society.

Today there is an urgent need for an all-round spiritual revolution in individual and collective life under the leadership of a group of accomplished and idealistic leaders. These leaders should be endowed with spiritual power, and their ideology should be based on the solid rock of spirituality. Such highly qualified leaders are called sadvipras. They will ensure social progress in all countries in all ages.

All genuine spiritualists will have to adjust with the level of the dusty earth inspired by the spontaneous love of their hearts. They will have to share the wealth of their developed intellects with others to lighten the sorrows and sufferings of humanity. Through their guidance and leadership, human thinking will take a new turn and move along an entirely new path. The latent spiritual power in human beings will be awakened. Through their effort and inspiration, the new people of a new generation will be armed with a bold new optimism and vision of the future, and march forward triumphantly.

Defects of Communism – Excerpt A

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 15 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

from Shabda Cayaniká Part 16

There are some people who deliver hollow lectures on economics or philosophy and make others believe that these ideas or theories will be able to bring about the economic emancipation of the people and unite them. They view everybody else in terms of their utility without creating in them any incentive or inspiration for or interest in work, and without recognizing the special value of an individual’s efficiency. By delivering superficial talks and propagating empty slogans, they in fact surreptitiously create artificial divisions among human beings. Whenever there is even a slight blow to these divisive sentiments, they protect themselves by claiming that because they are engaged in political affairs which cannot be called social crimes, punishment is not possible.

Many people blindly follow the dogma of so-called religions. A religion is a collection of “isms”, and an “ism” is a collection of dogma. (In common language “religion” is equilavant to the Sanskrit word dharma, but in philosophical language “religion” and dharma are not the same thing.) A religion which deals in abstract ideas related to unit consciousness, Supreme Consciousness and the manifest world is not the only type of religion. There are some “isms”, based upon various types of dogma, which sound and function as religions in the socio-economic sphere. And just as religions often impart defective teachings to human beings and incite them to communal conflict, likewise these particular “isms” cause human beings to degenerate to the level of animality in the name of class struggle.

The people belonging to the same religion are divided into various groups and sub-groups. For example, Jainism has Shvetámbar, Digambar and Therápanthii sects. Among the Buddhists there are Maháyánii, Hiinayánii, Lámávádii, Sthavirváda, Sammitiiya, etc., sects. Likewise, in socio-economic religion you must have seen how a particular political or economic party fragments into many branches due to minor differences of opinion.

This has happened, is happening and will continue to happen. It should be clearly understood. Just as the present world suffers from intense oppression due to religion, so does it face disintegration due to the intimidating threats of socio-economic religion.

Peace-loving, civilized human beings will have to find a way to protect themselves from these problems. They will have to act. Following the path of morality, human beings will have to move towards liberation with perseverance and rationality. There is no other way.

Defects of Communism – Excerpt B

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 15 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

from Shabda Cayaniká Part 17

Another meaning of the word acala is dharma, righteousness. Dharma always remains established in its position, whereas human beings waver. Sometimes human beings go beyond the domain of dharma and bring great harm upon themselves and society due to misguided intellect, defective philosophies, evil company or faulty direction.

Recently you may have noticed that Marxists sometimes shout at the top of their voices and cry themselves hoarse to proclaim that they do not accept dharma. They have now been caught in the trap of their defective philosophy, and their leaders have been caught in the same trap. They liquidated hundreds of thousands of simple, innocent people on flimsy charges without even the pretense of a trial. Was this a humanitarian act? This bestial genocide occurred because Marxists deviated from the path of dharma.

Today such people deserve severe condemnation by humanity. It is a sin to waste public money to build huge monuments or construct roads in memory of these people. Until they capture political power in a country, these hypocrites repeat the sweet slogans of democracy like parrots merely for public consumption. But once they are in power, they unscrupulously throw democracy in the dustbin and grind subtle human sensibilities and higher human values to dust under the steamroller of a ruthless party dictatorship.

Defects of Communism – Excerpt C

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 15 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

The term “communism” is derived from the word “commune” which comprises the prefix “co” and the root “mune”. “Co” means “together” and “mune” means “to do something”, so “commune” means “to do something together”. “Commune” plus “ism” equals “communism”. The term “communism” is only applicable where the commune system exists. Those who follow the commune system are communists. In the commune system there is no relationship among people doing something together as everything is imposed from the top. Hence, the word “commune” as used by Karl Marx is improper and misleading.

While Marx said many things, our discussion here is only concerned with those things in his philosophy which went against human psychology. That is, we are only concerned with that part of his philosophy which attempted to build castles on quicksand.

Communism is based on crude materialistic philosophy. Its goal is to enjoy whatever you get, depriving others. There is no scope for preparing the mind in an intellectual flow towards the pinnacled entity. When the mind reaches the body of its object – when the mind takes the form of its object – whether the object is crude or subtle, the mind is powdered down. The natural tendency of the mind is to go downwards, but when the mind ideates on the subtlest entity it is slowly converted into spirit. A spiritual aspirant has to take his or her mind upward.

When the object is subtle the mind becomes subtle, and when the psychic structure becomes subtle the thinking power is developed and higher ideas are created. If one meditates on materialistic ideas the mind will become crude and materialistic. If the mind always meditates on the commune system, will it become subtle or crude? It will surely become crude because in the communist system there is want of humanity and want of morality. The very theory of communism makes the mind crude.

Communism is unable to provide the proper environment for the creation of a strong, solid psychic and intellectual structure. That is why moral stamina – moral sanctity – is lost in communist countries. Such a phenomenon took place in India just before the Buddhist Age because of the influence of Cárvaka philosophy. Cárvaka philosophy was a protest against Vedic “bogusism”, although it was materialistic in nature. During that period there was not even a pinch of morality – society had lost all its moral stamina. Today the same thing is happening and will continue to happen in communist countries. In communist countries there is no sanctity in moral life – society is devoid of moral principles.

In the name of this defective theory one of the leaders of the Soviet Union killed more than 500,000 people and sent many more to labour camps in Siberia. Among all the anti-human and homicidal theories that have been created in this world, communism is the most barbarous. The day has come for it to be thrown on the scrap heap forever.

Several days ago it was reported in the newspaper that in communist China one million illegitimate children are born each year. This proves that communism encourages immorality. If this immorality goes unabated it will eat away human society and cause doldrums in the social order. Eventually the entire social structure will be destroyed. We cannot tolerate such a philosophy. The very thought of this philosophy is nauseating.

Countries which have both laborious and intellectually developed citizens have never accepted communism. For example, Karl Marx was born in Germany but his theory was not accepted there. Similarly, England gave shelter to Marx but did not accept his theory. The cooperative movement first started in England and the spirit of cooperation is reflected in many aspects of British society; consequently, Marxism has not been able to get a foothold in Britain. Japan is surrounded by communist countries like the Soviet Union, North Korea and China but it did not accept communism. The citizens of these countries, as well as of some other countries, are both laborious and intellectually developed, hence they have rejected Marxism.

Previously in India some meritorious students accepted Marxism as the best theory out of a bad lot, but they did not embrace it as their ideology of life. Now the cream of the university students are not attracted towards Marxism because Marxism is the symbol of intellectual hollowness.

The relationship between communism and intellectuality is like the relationship between a snake and a ferret. Just as it is the nature of a ferret to devour a snake, intellectually developed people can easily expose the defects in Marxism.

The philosophy of Gandhi died before India got independence – it died long before Gandhi died. But communism has survived long after the death of Marx. It survived only due to the force of arms and constant booming. If constant booming is done for something, then people start thinking that there must be some truth in what is being propagated. For example, if someone continually says that Gopal is a very bad boy, then people will eventually believe what they are being told. Gopal will become a bad boy in their eyes. Communists are doing constant booming about their theory. Due to this people are being brainwashed, and at this stage it is very easy to inject incorrect ideas into their minds. By constant booming of their wrong theory they are creating their supporters, but these cadres suffer from intellectual bankruptcy. When intellectual people ask them anything they fail to answer, and this causes them to revolt.

In communist countries the party leaders used all their strength and every possible approach – force of arms, terror and control over freedom of speech – to keep the people oppressed. But today the conscience of the party leaders has revolted against these methods. This was the reason why the student movement in China was not suppressed for a long time.

Communist countries are abandoning the defective commune system because it is causing suffering from food shortages. Communists are abandoning the commune system because this rotten system is adversely affecting the health of society. Communist leaders, who used to give so-called guidance to the people, have themselves abandoned the path of communism. It is clear that Marxism has failed theoretically, but now it has also failed in practice in those countries which follow Marxism. The sins which Marxism has committed have resulted in its annihilation.

Any theory, principle, idea or proposition must have a firm foundation to stand upon. This is a fundamental necessity. Everything in the physical or psychic spheres moves within the periphery of the three supreme relative factors – time, space and individuality. Theories or propositions are not exceptions to this rule.

Democracy is a sort of procrastinated progress – progress is not speedy or accelerated. In capitalist democracies votes can be purchased, thus poor people cannot fight elections. Can there be any adjustment between pseudo-capitalism and pseudo-communism as was tried by Euro-communism? Pseudo-communism was once tried by Adolf Hitler and Mussolini. Pseudo-communism means it seems to be communism but practically it is not. The national socialists of Europe included Mussolini in Italy, Hitler in Germany and Franco in Spain.

The proposition of communism has got no fundamental foot to stand upon. Its very base is oscillating. It is neither a theory, nor a principle, nor a proposition. Communism today may be termed “revisionism” or “pseudo-revisionism”. “Pseudo” is a Latin word of German origin. It does not mean “false”. It means “to some extent like the original but not exactly like the original”. Any policy of pseudo-revisionism is ultravires to the principle of the vital faculty – it is ultravires to the existential faculty. It is a counter-psychic motion and against the seed of a living sprout, therefore it can never be accepted. It is like the temporary glow of a flame – it only exists for a short period, then after its sad demise, it leaves behind no permanent mark in human history. This will be the fate of communism. It is a policy or proposition based on pseudo-revisionism. Such pseudo-revisionism is detrimental to the existential faculty, and that is why pseudo-revisionism should be discarded at the very primordial phase. Such a phenomenon has taken place in the world of intellectuality. Communism has died a premature death.

If any wrong theory continues for a long period, when the reaction against it finally starts the reaction will only last a short time and will be intensely destructive, like a hurricane. Today communism is burning in the fire of its own failure, and your work is to add some fuel to that fire.

All human society will have to undergo atonement for the sins committed by communism – not even the innocent will be spared. This dangerous theory has committed many atrocities against society, and it will continue to do so until it is finished in name as well as in theory. Although communism is dead in theory, it continues to exist in name. As this theory is extremely detrimental to human existence, you should ensure that it is eradicated in name as well as soon as possible.

Economic Dynamics

Published in:
A Few Problems Solved Part 9
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 13 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Each and every movement in this universe is systaltic. Nothing ever moves in a straight line. Due to this systaltic motion, internal clash and cohesion take place. The ups and downs of socio-economic life in different phases of the social order are sure to take place due to this systaltic principle. When the period of pause is long, society goes through a phase of extended staticity, and it may lose all its dynamic movement or even cease to exist. If there is lack of dynamic force in the phase of pause, then the stage of dynamicity may not come in the subsequent phase.

The downfall of both capitalism and communism is inevitable due to their inherent staticity. Both capitalism and communism are on the verge of extinction from this world. The external and internal spheres of capitalism have ordinary acceleration, but there is a contradiction between its internal and external spheres. The contradictions in capitalism are due to the self-centred profit motivated psychology and the accumulation of wealth for the benefit of a few rather than for the welfare of all. Hence, capitalism is not congenial to the integrated growth of human progress. A day is therefore sure to come when capitalism will burst like a fire-cracker.

Marxism, too, is a transitory phenomenon. In the external sphere of Marxism there is only ordinary acceleration, and in the internal sphere there is staticity. The result is negative dynamicity. That is why Marxism will never be a success either. Marxism is just like a comet on a parabolic path – it is not of hyperbolic order. Marxism can only bring society to an omni-static state; that is, the state of nihilism or cynicism – a sort of negation.

In the economic sphere depressions are inevitable in both capitalist and communist countries due to this very inherent, intensive and innate staticity. Economic depressions are actually the net result of suppression, repression and oppression – that is, exploitation. When exploitation reaches the culminating point, the mobility and the speed of the society become virtually nil. In such a stage, that is, in this culminating point, a natural explosion takes place. In the case of the material world the explosion is of a material nature, and in the psychic sphere the explosion is of a psychic order, and so on. Depressions may happen in any of the four eras – the Shúdra, Kśatriya, Vipra or Vaeshya Eras.

Depressions may also take place in the cultural life of society due to suppression, repression and oppression. As a result, every aspect of cultural life becomes perverted and degenerates. This is why we get perverted literature, music, dance, art, architecture, etc.

In both social and economic life this depression becomes unbearable for one and all. Such a depression took place between 1929 and 1931. During this depression in Bengal, five kilos of brinjal were sold for one paisa, and forty kilos were sold for eight paise in the Burdwan market, but there was no one to purchase these items. There were also big curtailments in salaries, and people had to accept salary cuts of ten percent or more.

Today also the stage has almost come for such a severe reaction. The explosion will come in two, three or five years. It will surely come within ten years. The difference between the previous depression and the future depression will be that in the previous one there was little inflation, but the future depression will be associated with inflation. Hence, it will be more detrimental to the integrated development of human society.

This depression will occur in the industrial subsection of the commercial economy. It will have widespread and devastating consequences for humanity.

An endeavour should be made to shorten the span of this economic depression. Before the final culminating point comes, it is possible to avert the disaster and accelerate the speed of social movement. We can do so by creating a socio-economic and cultural impact on the entire social structure through PROUT. As the world is passing through a most critical phase, we should be more active and create an impact. If the positive impact we create coincides with the explosion, the effect will be excellent.

It must be borne in mind that both inflation and depression result from the ailment of staticity. If the production in a country is abundant and the gold bullion reserves are in proportion to the country’s economic position, there is no possibility of inflation. However, if the circulation of the capital decreases as a result of staticity and the quantum of production also goes down, then inflation is bound to take place.

If a country has a constant deficit in foreign trade, in that case also there is the possibility of inflation. In addition, if foreign trade is not conducted according to the barter system and the country has to import foodstuffs and export raw materials, inflation will certainly occur.

On the other hand, if there is sufficient production and adequate supply, but suddenly the quantum of demand falls, then the value of money suddenly increases for the buyer. This is called “negative inflation” or “deflation”.

There are two main causes for economic depressions – first, the concentration of wealth, and secondly, blockages in the rolling of money. If capital is concentrated in the hands of a few individuals or the state, most people will be exploited by a handful of exploiters. As a result of this process of severe exploitation, a serious explosion takes place. This explosion is known as a depression in the economic world. The concentration of wealth, and particularly the concentration of the value of wealth, is the fundamental cause of a depression.

Secondly, a depression may occur when money that is in the possession of individual or state capitalists stops rolling. Money remains inert or unutilized because those capitalists think that if the money is allowed to roll freely then their profits will decrease, even though it will bring relief to the common people. The very psychology of capitalists is to make profit from the rolling of money. When they discover that the investment of money does not bring profit up to their expectations, then they stop rolling money. This keeps money immobile or inert; consequently, there is no investment, no production, no income and hence no purchasing power. The situation becomes so dangerous that there are few buyers to buy commodities.

If there is surplus labour and deficit production, the effect of depression is more acute. Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, especially the Telengana region, and Orissa are surplus labour areas, so during a depression these areas could face indiscriminate closure of business houses and lay-offs. When wages fall, the people in surplus labour areas who used to go to deficit labour areas for employment will be subjected to more hardships. This will aggravate the unemployment problem in surplus labour areas. In such situations, restricting the transfer of food among different socio-economic units could lead to an acute scarcity of food in the deficit production areas, and therefore a cordon system should not be introduced. Countries and regions with surplus production and deficit labour usually suffer less hardships during depression.

An economic depression in capitalist countries will not spare communist or so-called socialist countries, India and the Middle East. India exports many raw materials to industrially developed countries and their satellites. India also purchases raw materials such as raw cotton from other countries, although it used to export such materials in the past. Therefore, to the extent to which India is dependent on other countries for its exports or imports, it will be affected. India also has immense loans, and these loans will put a strain on the Indian economy during the depression. The fire sparks of depression will not spare India. If the financial or monetary trade – or say the trade that affects bullion – is lessened, and barter trade is increased, then the effect of a depression on India will not be much. Therefore, India should try to increase its range of barter trade.

Bangladesh exports manufactured goods, raw jute and hide, and imports foodstuffs and almost all other articles. If Bangladesh wants to avoid a depression, it will have no alternative but to increase its barter trade.

In time the Arab countries – those selling oil – will be the most affected. Even the communist countries will not be spared from the onslaught of a depression. These countries have not been able to solve their food problems. Although they have huge buffer stocks, they depend on Canada, the USA and Australia for wheat. If these dollar-based countries suffer from a depression, the communist countries will certainly be affected by a depression, although not much.

Depression is not a natural phenomenon. Pause is a natural phenomenon. In a Proutistic structure pause may occur but depression will not occur. To save society from depression, the approach of PROUT is to increase purchasing power by increasing production, reduce disparities in the value of wealth, and increase the circulation of money; that is, by keeping money rolling. Empty slogans will not do. Attention will have to be given to increasing the level of production.

In capitalist and communist countries, the mode of production is defective. In capitalist countries, labour does not work in the interest of the management and management does not allow the rolling of money due to the concentration of wealth. In communist countries, labour does not feel one with the job and that is why there is sluggish production.

The cooperative model of PROUT is free from both sets of defects. PROUT is well-adjusted with human ideals and sentiments. Other socio-economic systems are ultravires to human existence and all-round elevation.

In capitalist economies, production is for the profit of the capitalist and the profit goes to individuals, groups and the state exchequer. In socialist economies or so-called communism, the profit goes to the state exchequer and a microscopic fraction of the profit goes to the actual producers. In both cases capitalism exists, and whenever fresh financial investment is required, inflation takes place.

In a Proutistic economy, production will be solely for consumption. As there will not be any profit motive, there cannot be any fresh inflation, and the existing inflation will gradually die out. In Proutistic production or consumption, in the first phase the money value remains constant and full-fledged purchasing capacity will be guaranteed to the people. In the second phase, when production increases in the revised economic order, money will get back its natural market value. Finally, after consumption, money will get back its actual value. Inflation will be checked and purchasing capacity and the minimum requirements of life will be guaranteed to the people.

The second phase will continue for ten to fifteen years. After the expiry of this period, that is, in the third phase, minimum requirements of life will increase and people will acquire more purchasing power. This power will increase at an accelerating rate.

The printing and issuing of monetary notes having no bullion value must stop immediately, and new notes having bullion value should be issued in new colours and shapes. No monetary notes should be issued by the government from then on without a clear assurance that it is prepared to pay the requisite amount of money in gold coins. This can only be implemented by a Proutistic government.

The problem of production inflation cannot be ignored either. Production inflation may occur in two ways. First, owing to the application of scientific methods, the production of certain commodities may increase in excess of the demand or need in particular socio-economic regions. Then it becomes a problem how such excess production or overproduction can be marketed or consumed. Secondly, it may also happen that all of a sudden under certain circumstances the production of commodities increases, then it becomes difficult to find a market for such production.

Now a question arises whether or not such production will increase purchasing power as well as elevate the standard of it. In general circumstances such production is not a big problem, not a chronic problem, but if no measure is taken to find a market for such overproduction, then it may take the form of an acute problem. This problem can be tackled by taking three measures.

First, there should be a free trade system so that overproduction can be consumed by other countries or other economic units. In India, excepting the Punjab and Haryana, there is underproduction of milk. In other states, common people cannot get a sufficient amount of milk. But there are many countries, such as certain European countries, where there is overproduction of milk. In England, Germany and Sweden the authorities even give orders or encourage the public to kill cows. If in these circumstances free trade is allowed among different countries, the countries having overproduction or underproduction can make respective adjustments among themselves so that the overproduction of commodities may be consumed by under-producing countries. In that case the concerned countries will be benefited. Here free trade means that there should not be any imposition of export or import duties, and thus the prices of these commodities will benefit the consumers when they reach the market for actual consumption.

Secondly, there should be proper arrangement everywhere for the preservation of products which are in excess production. In Malda in Bengal there may be overproduction of mangoes which are perishable commodities. As there is no system of preservation, the ordinary mango growers will have to sell their mangoes at throw away prices. But if they could sell the same products four months later they would get remunerative prices. Moreover, if processing factories are established, they can then produce dried mango, mango candy, mango juice, sauce, jam, etc., which can be preserved for a longer time. There are many countries in Europe or other parts of the world where there is no mango production. If a system of preservation were available, then mangoes could easily be sold in those European countries, and the mango growers could earn a good amount of money.

In many places in India abundant vegetables are produced in the winter season; for example, in Nadia district, at Ranaghat, Nagi, Bago, etc. In European countries at the same time there cannot be any vegetable production due to the excessive cold. If vegetable processing factories could be installed in those places, then perishable vegetable products could be easily preserved by such processes as canning, and exported to other countries. From Calcutta it takes a maximum of twenty days for a ship to reach Europe, so preservation arrangements could be made for that period. Similar arrangements could be made for betel leaf. If this were done, then the poor growers at Tomluk, Mecheda, Bagnan, etc., would be able to live a well-to-do life.

Thirdly, new diversified styles of consumption should be invented. That is, consumption should be of a progressive nature and the style of consumption should be diversified. For example, there is only limited utilization of linseed at the moment in India. If the oil extracted from the linseed is deodorized, then it can be widely used as an edible oil. Also linen thread can be manufactured from linseed plants, which generally go to waste. Okra is abundantly produced in India, but it is only used as a vegetable. Oil can be extracted from okra seeds, and this can be processed and marketed as edible oil. Also, fine thread can be manufactured from the okra plant, and good quality clothes can be prepared from that thread.

In Bangladesh and West Bengal there is overproduction of jute, which is an acute problem today. This problem can be easily tackled by diversifying the methods of jute consumption. For example, we can get fine thread from raw jute to produce good quality clothes.

In the existing world structure geo-sentiment is an obstacle to the implementation of free trade. Neither the capitalist countries nor the communist countries like the free trade system because it is detrimental to their respective self-interests. But there are some free trade zones in the world which are very bright examples of the success of this sort of system. Singapore is one such example. There was a good proposal to declare Calcutta a free trade zone, but it was not implemented for many reasons, including the failure of the concerned leaders. Bengal could have been greatly benefited by such a system.

In a revised economic structure – that is, PROUT – there must not be any import or export duties on consumable commodities. If this is done, then this earth will be converted into a golden earth.

The commune system suffers from the acute problem of chronic shortages of food products, so the communist countries always import food products from capitalist countries, in spite of all sorts of hue and cry raised by them regarding their “isms”. Therefore, they oppose the free trade system.

In case there is overproduction of non-perishable goods or raw materials, these raw materials must not be allowed to be exported to other countries. Instead, raw materials must be immediately converted into manufactured goods at the place where they are available. For example, Orissa, the western portion of Ráŕh, certain portions of Madhya Pradesh, and certain portions of southern Bihar and Telengana are rich in different kinds of raw materials. These economically undeveloped places can easily be converted into advanced areas like the Rhine region of Germany. Poverty stricken people will live an affluent life if factories in these areas convert raw materials into manufactured goods.

The export of raw materials is a sign of an unhealthy economy in a country. If overproduction is caused due to the scientific application of improved methods in industry and agriculture, such as good manuring, then consumption may be adjusted through different methods as suggested above. This will also increase the purchasing power of the people. In such a stage the bountifulness of nature will ultimately prove to be a boon for the common people. Hence, in a Proutistic structure production inflation would not be regarded as a problem.

PROUT is the panacea for the integrated progress of human society. It aims to bring about equilibrium and equipoise in all aspects of socio-economic life through totally restructuring economics. Without PROUT, socio-economic emancipation will remain a utopian dream. Only PROUT can save the world from depression.

Furthermore, only PROUT is free from the inherent and exherent staticity. In capitalism there is exherent and inherent staticity. In communism there is extensive and intensive innate staticity. People suffer from the ailments of staticity. These ailments will destroy all forms of “isms” in the very near future. Wise people should utilize this moment.

We are near the last stage of the Vaeshya Era. If an impact is created, it will help the suffering humanity. It is the most opportune moment for creating an all-round revolution. This is a new sub-theory under Proutistic theory and may be called gati vijiṋána – the science of dynamics in PROUT.

Economic Depressions

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 15 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

Shabda Cayaniká Part 15

In the economic sphere, you must know that two factors are very important. The first is that money will have to be kept in circulation. It must be understood that the more the purchasing capacity of money is not utilized or money is kept stagnant, the more the economic stratum is damaged. The second is that money, and indirectly its interest, can bring about disparities in wealth if it loses its ability to be the unit of economic equilibrium and stability. If these two fundamental factors of economics are even partially forgotten, a worldwide economic depression will result.

Even if countries or socio-economic regions which have been maintaining a stable economic standard engage in trade related to bullion with other countries, they will have to suffer such a depression partially if not totally. If countries which are prosperous in various spheres and economically unrelated to other countries undergoing a depression, invest their wealth in enterprises of a non-yielding nature such as excessive defence spending, superfluous construction of large buildings, luxury goods, etc. – investments which do not earn any income in return – these countries will also suffer from economic depression.

However, if a country discontinues trade related to direct or indirect economic transactions and commences barter trade instead with other countries, it will not suffer much from such an economic depression. In this case only a very slight economic depression, which is hardly felt, takes place at the end of every financial year due to imbalances in economic transactions. This type of depression is felt slightly every three years, a bit more every thirty years, and still more every 350 years…

When something, for some reason or other, descends from its universally accepted position, or its natural value is reduced or brought down, we call it “devaluation”. When the leaders of the state find it difficult to balance the value of the currency with bullion, sometimes they officially reduce the value of the currency. This is called “monetary devaluation”. But, an economic depression is felt throughout a country or the world due to some inherent defects in the existing economic systems.

Agrarian Revolution

Published in:
A Few Problems Solved Part 2
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 2 Part 7 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

The economic development of a country depends on the collective labour of different social groups. This is the reason that the system of the division of labour gradually evolves out of the practice of domestic economy. The value of the labour of all groups, including industrial labourers, peasants, carpenters, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, potters, physicians and clerks, is equal in the collective development of the economy.

In ancient India a form of elastic economy was prevalent which supported the collective economic endeavour of the people. In the Vedic Age the economic system of India evolved on the basis of social classes (varńa). The shúdras, kśatriyas, vipras and vaeshyas – these four social classes evolved and remained content with specific economic activities of their choice. One particular class engaged itself in farming, while other classes undertook different occupations. People did not rush towards agricultural work as is happening today. As this class system (varńáshrama) was hereditary, there was little scope for socio-economic imbalance.

In that age agriculture reached a high degree of expertise and efficiency. Kings used to be directly involved with the different aspects of agriculture such as planting multiple crops according to the different seasons, large-scale and small-scale agriculture, the use of manure, the application of insecticides, irrigation systems through rivers and canals, and dairy farming. In those days the state had the duty to confiscate land from landlords who kept land unutilized, and transfer it to those who could properly utilize it for agricultural purposes. The value of land was determined by the extent of its productivity. The state used to fix the price of agricultural produce, and as a result there was little scope for the business class to exploit farmers.

After the arrival of the British in India economic balance was lost, mainly because the British government was totally indifferent to the development of indigenous industry and agriculture. It did not even realize the necessity of planning for this type of development. Instead, it introduced a new system of education which mainly produced a class of clerks which was utilized by the British government to consolidate its administrative power. Many people gave up their hereditary occupations and sought posts in the British administration. This seriously damaged the agricultural system.

The second cause of economic imbalance was the gradual collapse of indigenous industrial enterprises, notably the hand weaving industry. As a result of the supply of cloth from the Manchester cotton mills, the demand for hand woven cloth began to dwindle. The supply of aluminium utensils also destroyed India’s pottery industry. The factories established by the British severely affected indigenous industries because they used the latest technology. Consequently, those employed in these industries gradually gave up their traditional occupations and crowded the agricultural sector for a livelihood.

This problem was compounded by growth in the population, which led to the subdivision and fragmentation of agricultural land. This in turn resulted in decreased production. Food was imported from outside India to feed the population. During the Second World War the importation of food was stopped, causing a severe shortage of food in the country.

To overcome the great famine that struck Bengal in 1943, the Wavell administration introduced a rationing system. Wavell also tried to alleviate the famine by restricting the movement of food from one province to another. But these measures did not solve the problem – rather most people became trapped in the food rationing system.

Even after the departure of the British in 1947, about 145,000 people were included in the rationing system. This resulted in the gradual increase of black marketeering, profiteering and other corrupt practices. The central government suddenly abolished the food rationing system in an attempt to solve the problem of corruption. This precipitous step caused the price of food to rise to exorbitant heights. Later the food rationing system had to be reintroduced.

The Indian leaders tried to solve this food problem by calling for a “grow more food” campaign, but the campaign was a failure because the system of agriculture was not changed to increase output. The government adopted the policy of increasing the area of arable land and not the productivity of the existing land. There was no planning to determine whether or not the new land was suitable for agriculture, and no proper irrigation facilities to improve productivity. But above all, in the democratic system bureaucrats had ample scope to neglect their responsibilities, and due to defective administration much agricultural potential was wasted. Consequently, dishonest traders conspired to make the agricultural sector ineffective. They perpetuated the food problem to satisfy their own selfish interests. So from all points of view the agricultural system in India is extremely weak.

The fundamental characteristic of any developed economy is this: about thirty percent to forty-five percent of the people should remain engaged in agriculture and the rest of the population should be employed in industry or other sectors of the economy. Excessive pressure on agriculture is not a sign of a healthy economy. At present about seventy-five percent of the Indian population is dependent upon agriculture for its livelihood. This is a very dangerous situation for the Indian economy. Those who are engaged in agriculture remain unemployed most of the year and this is an enormous waste of human labour. This unemployment problem in agriculture must be solved immediately – it brooks no delay.

Recently, a particular group of politicians raised the slogan of “agricultural revolution” to solve the problem. They wanted to solve India’s agricultural problems by following the example of China. However, there are vast differences between the agricultural problems confronted by India and those confronted by China. The problems of India can never be solved by following the policies of China.

The basic problem in China is that despite considerable agricultural progress, China has not been able to feed its huge population. Moreover, in China there is not even sufficient land to accommodate its huge population – and its population is continually increasing. In the industrial sphere China has already exhausted most of its natural resources. It hopes to preserve its remaining scant resources for industrial development, thus preventing a dark future.

There are three main economic problems in China. First, China must feed its increasing population through agricultural development. Secondly, the percentage of the population employed in agriculture is too high. And thirdly, employment must be provided to the non-agricultural sector of the economy through industrial expansion. Because none of these problems could be solved immediately, China under Mao Zedong adopted a policy of grabbing land from neighbouring states. The recent Chinese attacks in Tibet, India and the Soviet Union were motivated by an insatiable hunger for land.⁽¹⁾ This is a very ingenious plan for agrarian revolution!

The agricultural problems in India are of a different nature. There is ample scope for agricultural development and industrial revolution in India. India suffers economic hardships today because its economic potential has not been properly harnessed.

There are two fundamental economic issues in India. First, the agricultural potentiality of the country must be developed by reducing the percentage of the population working in agriculture. Secondly, the excessively high percentage of the population dependent on agriculture must be reduced by developing industries.

Infusing in people the sentiment of grabbing land from other countries will not solve India’s agricultural problems. The only solution is to increase productivity within the country. Those who raised the slogan, “China’s agrarian revolution shows the way for India” are labouring under the illusion of defective thinking.

Another political group in India wants to bring about radical changes in the economic sphere by transferring all power to the masses. According to them every citizen should own a certain portion of land – no one should remain landless. Poor people are easily won over by these sentiments. Politicians espouse these ideas merely to lure people so that they can fulfil their own political aspirations. Poor landless peasants become overjoyed at the prospect of owning their own land, then politicians use them to achieve their objectives.

A particular political party today advocates forcibly depriving landowners of their land and distributing it to the landless peasants. By creating a rift between the landowners and agricultural workers, these politicians try to cultivate a philanthropic image.

Let us analyse to what extent this approach would be conducive to the overall economic growth of India. First, if surplus land were distributed among landless people, no one would get more than an acre of land at the most. This acre of land would not be an ideal economic holding because it could not be cultivated with the latest scientific methods. A sizeable portion of the land would be wasted in demarcating boundary lines, so it would be impossible to increase productivity. Increased productivity is the most important agricultural requirement in India today. Besides this, if land were distributed in this way, land would be further subdivided with the increase in the population, further aggravating the problem.

Secondly, this approach would have the effect of increasing the number of petit bourgeoisie. By petit bourgeoisie I mean those who derive unearned income by giving their land to others for cultivation because they are in economic difficulty. If landless peasants acquired a plot of one acre, they would certainly get some psychic satisfaction, but when they failed to earn anything after cultivating the land, they would definitely become disheartened. It would require all their time, energy and money to cultivate one acre of land productively because the land would be too small to utilize modern agricultural techniques. The amount of produce they would get in return would not be enough to maintain their families. They would have to lease a portion of the land and try to earn their income through other methods. By this process, the number of landowners would increase and they would all become part of the petit bourgeoisie. Politicians who claim that they hate landowners and raise slogans for their destruction deviate from their professed platform, because such an ideology only results in the creation of more landowners.

Thirdly, before the redistribution of the land, these politicians forcibly occupy the land, steal the produce, set fire to the crops, and through a host of other subversive methods, instigate hostilities against the landowners. Consequently, landowners become increasingly indifferent to the agricultural production of their land as they have no economic security. When these factors are combined together, they only aggravate the agricultural problem rather than solve it.

Thus, in order to solve the agricultural problems in India, the Chinese system, which is based on the principle that the one who works the plough should own the land, is not applicable. Rather, to solve India’s agricultural problems, there must be a radical change in the entire agricultural system.

According to PROUT, to facilitate increased production economic holdings must first be reorganized. An economic holding means a holding where output exceeds input. It is not possible to predetermine the size of this economic unit. While considering input, output, productivity, etc., to determine the optimum size of an economic unit, factors like the fertility of the soil, climatic conditions, etc., will have to be considered.

Today many people believe that increased production is possible even if landholdings are small. Increased production depends upon the expertise of farm managers and their correct, timely decisions. If managers are competent, then even very large farms can increase production. Of course, it is not necessary that all farms should become large. The main thing is that the holdings should be economically viable. There is no valid reason why there is a fifteen percent loss in the annual production of the large collective farms in the Soviet Union.

To increase productivity and prevent the growth of large exploitative cultivators, the minimum and maximum size of an economic landholding should be determined. The minimum size of a landholding should be equal to the size of an economic holding in a particular region. Thus, the minimum size of an economic holding will vary from place to place. The maximum size of a landholding will depend upon the fertility of the soil, overall production and the expertise of the management. Economic holdings will generally comprise land of the same topography having adequate irrigation and other agricultural facilities. The size of economic holdings must be progressively increased keeping all these factors in mind.

The size of economic holdings may vary from country to country. At the same time the size may also vary within a country. In the Indo-Gangetic plains, a five acre holding is abundantly productive, whereas in Ladakh or the Chotanagpur Hills, even fifteen or sixteen acres of land may not yield enough produce for subsistence. The size of economic holdings in these two places is bound to vary.

The following should be remembered. First, distributing land to people will not solve their problems. The ownership of the land is inconsequential; what counts is the production from the land. Secondly, merely delegating the management of land to someone will not yield the desired production. It is not always possible for one person to invest the money necessary to cultivate the land according to the most modern methods, so the production of the land is bound to decrease. Above all, in a healthy economy, economic decentralization is essential.

For decentralization, agricultural land should be managed through the cooperative system. However, it is not wise to suddenly hand over all land to cooperative management because cooperatives evolve out of the collective labour and wisdom of a community. The community must develop an integrated economic environment, common economic needs and a ready market for its cooperatively produced goods. Unless these three factors work together, an enterprise cannot be called a cooperative.

After creating a congenial environment, land will have to be handed over to cooperative management. Then, with the help of appropriate scientific technology, it will be possible to increase agricultural production.

There should be a two phase plan to introduce cooperative land management. In the first phase, all uneconomic holdings should be required to join the cooperative system so that they will become economic holdings. In this phase, cooperatives will only consist of those people who merged their land together to make uneconomic holdings economic. Private ownership will be recognized. For instance, one person may own one acre, another two acres and a third person three acres within the cooperative. Each cooperative member will be entitled to a dividend based on the total production in proportion to the land they donated to the cooperative. Each individual will retain the deed of ownership of their land, but agricultural activities will be conducted cooperatively. Consequently, land which remained utilized as boundary lines will no longer be left uncultivated. In certain places in Bihar and Bengal the total area of arable land is less than the amount of land wasted on boundary lines. If this system is implemented, all will benefit.

In the first phase of the plan, those owning land which is productive as an economic holding need not be persuaded to join a cooperative. But if an economic holding comprises land which is dispersed in small plots, the scattered plots should be consolidated into one holding. Alternatively, wherever small, scattered, uneconomic plots are located, they will have to be joined together under cooperative management.

In the third phase there should be rational distribution of land and redetermination of ownership. In this new system two factors will determine the rational distribution of land – the minimum holding of land necessary to maintain a family, and the farmer’s capacity to utilize the land.

In the fourth phase there will be no conflict over the ownership of land. A congenial environment will exist due to psychic expansion because people will learn to think for the collective welfare rather than for their petty self-interest. Such a change will certainly not come overnight. Unless there is suitable psychic preparation through internal urge and external pressure, adjusting with the time factor, people will never accept this system, and it cannot be forcibly imposed on them.

The leaders of the Soviet Union were ignorant of the collective psychology of the people, so they tried to impose collective farming by force. This produced severe famines and massive civil unrest. While trying to cope with these problems, the administration resorted to brute force instead of adopting psychological measures, and as a result they annihilated many people. Sadvipras will never go against the spirit of a country and cause its ruin.

Many people raise questions regarding cooperatives because in most countries the cooperative system has failed. On the basis of the examples to date, it is not appropriate to criticize the cooperative system. This is because most countries could not evolve the indispensable conditions necessary for the success of the cooperative system. Cooperatives depend upon three main factors for their success – morality, strong supervision and the wholehearted acceptance of the masses. Wherever these three factors have been evident in whatever measure, cooperatives have achieved proportionate success.

Take the case of Israel. Because the country is surrounded by enemies on all sides, the people are extremely aware of the need to be self-reliant. People want wholeheartedly to consolidate the national economy. Thus, they have converted arid deserts into productive agricultural land through the cooperative system.

As this kind of mentality was never created in India, India is a classic example of the failure of the cooperative system. Indian cooperatives were not created for economic development but for the fulfilment of political interests. Under such circumstances it was impossible for the cooperative system to succeed.

Good examples must be established to encourage people to adopt the cooperative system. There should be pilot cooperative projects, machine stations, adequate irrigation systems, and improved seeds and insecticides. At the same time people must be educated about the beneficial aspects of cooperatives. Instead of educating people how to increase the productivity of their land, the leaders of India show films on birth control in the market place. I call such people the greatest enemies of humanity.

PROUT advocates maximum modernization in agriculture and industry. In the cooperative agricultural system, modern equipment must be utilized because such modernization will facilitate increased production. For example, tractors can dig the land very deeply, bring low level soil to the surface and force the the top soil below. The fertility of the top soil is diminished as a result of continuous cultivation, so when the lower soil is brought to the surface through the use of tractors, the productivity of the soil increases. In addition, the depleted top soil has the opportunity to become revitalized for future utilization. This is one benefit of tractors. A second is that farmers do not need to maintain cows for ploughing the fields. Where cows are kept for farming, they are unutilized for six months in a year. During that idle period, many costs occur to maintain them properly. The present age is not the age for utilizing large animals. In Europe horses and elephants are no longer used. To adjust with the times, tractors should be utilized today. One tractor equals the service of at least eight pairs of bullocks. Those who have half an acre or three acres of land need to maintain a pair of bullocks. This is wasteful duplication.

If modern equipment is used in agriculture, agriculture will not remain labour intensive and people can be utilized in other activities to enhance the development of the country. For this, new arrangements will have to be created. If fewer people work in agricultural cooperatives, there will be substantial savings. Simultaneously, women and children will be freed from related work so they will get scope to develop themselves. In addition, increased mechanization will link the villages to the cities and towns, and as a result the standard of living in the villagers will be increased.

In PROUT’s system of agriculture there is no place for intermediaries. Those who invest their capital by engaging others in productive labour to earn a profit are capitalists. Capitalists, like parasites, thrive on the blood of industrial and agricultural labourers. Those who act as intermediaries in the agricultural sector are called “agricultural capitalists”. They get their own land cultivated by others and take the profits.

In India, intermediaries have been in existence since ancient times. Different types of landowners such as zamindars, pattanidars, darpattanidars, sepattanidars, jotedars, vargadars and adhikaris constitute the intermediaries. In modern India the zamindary and sharecropping systems have been abolished, but the feudal psychology has not disappeared. The present feudal rulers are not the actual owners of land. They take land on lease from others and pay a certain percentage of the produce to the owner of the land, thus they exploit both the actual owner of the land and the agricultural labourers. The number of these intermediaries is steadily increasing.

PROUT does not support these kinds of intermediaries. Slogans like, “The land belongs to those who work the plough,” or, “Those who sow the seeds should reap the harvest,” are untenable. Policies based on such slogans lead to the creation of a petit bourgeois class.

According to PROUT, in the first phase of agrarian revolution private ownership of land within the cooperative system will be recognized. People should have the right to employ labour for cultivation, but in such cases fifty percent of the total produce should be distributed as wages to the agricultural labourers who work in the cooperative. That is, the owners of the land will get fifty percent of the total produce and those who create the produce through their labour will get the other fifty percent. This ratio must never decrease – rather it should increase in favour of the agricultural labourers who work in the cooperative.

The managerial staff body of the cooperative should only be constituted from among those who have shares in the cooperative. They will be elected. Their positions should not be honorary because that creates scope for corruption. Managers will have to be paid salaries according to the extent of their intellectual expertise. In addition, the members of the cooperative may also employ their manual labour if they so desire, and for this they should be paid separate wages. Thus, cooperative members can earn dividends in two ways – as a return on the land given to the cooperative and on the basis of their productive labour. For this, the total produce of the cooperative should be divided into equal parts – that is, fifty percent on wages for labour, and fifty percent for the shareholders of the land.

For the development of agriculture there is also a need for agricultural specialists and technicians. Producers cooperatives should employ such skilled labour. Thus, educated people will not remain unemployed, and they will not leave the villages for the cities. This will ensure rapid agricultural development.

PROUT believes in a decentralized economy. So policies must be adopted which not only develop one particular region, but accelerate all-round development at a uniform pace throughout the entire socio-economic area through the planned utilization of all local resources and potentialities. To achieve this aim, local people must first be employed in agricultural cooperatives.

In modern India there are two distinct areas – one of surplus labour and the other of deficit labour. That is why people usually migrate from surplus labour areas to other regions. However, the very concept of surplus labour is a relative one. Where adequate opportunities for proper economic development have not been created, there is surplus labour. Labour becomes surplus in all undeveloped socio-economic areas. When surplus labour moves to another region, the undeveloped area has every chance of remaining undeveloped forever.

According to PROUT, wherever there is surplus labour, top priority must be given to creating employment for all local labour. This policy will raise the standard of living of the local people and the whole area. If this policy is not implemented and surplus labour is allowed to move to other regions, and the Marxist policy that, “those who sow shall reap” is followed, then all tea plantations, coal mines and other natural resources will be controlled by outside labour. Local people will lose control over their natural resources. This will create a very dangerous situation.

PROUT’s opinion is that local people must have first priority in employment opportunities. As long as there is not full employment for local people, continuous efforts must be made until all local labour is fully employed. In addition, no fresh developmental programmes will be started until there is further demand for labour. Scandinavian countries did not commence any new development schemes for this reason.

While creating employment for the local people, consideration must be given to local sentiments. For instance, many areas of India are regions of surplus intellectual labour. People in this category are ready to work as clerks for the very low wage of thirty rupees a month, but they are not prepared to work as porters and earn more money. The problem of surplus intellectual labour is a special one and should be solved in a proper way. In these areas industries which require less manual labour should be established. Thus, different development schemes will have to be adopted in different socio-economic units depending upon time, place and person.

The present system of collecting revenue on agriculture cannot be supported because it is inconvenient for both the tax collectors and the farmers. Even the zamindary system which was established during the British period for tax collection was defective. Farmers had to pay a specified amount each year to the treasury for the land given to them by the zamindars. In cases of flood, crop failure, or any other reason, this fixed amount still had to be paid to the treasury. The zamindars enjoyed life as social parasites. Even today land tax is determined by the area of land. In cases of crop failure in any year, the government has to reduce its taxes. In cases of abundant harvests, the government has to increase taxes through levies. This system causes great inconvenience to the farmers.

The best system of taxation was in vogue in the ancient Hindu Age. In those days only twenty-five percent of the entire produce was given to the king as taxes. The farmers could also give cows, horses or sheep as taxes. In such a system farmers did not face any inconvenience. Today, however, farmers face much inconvenience because they have to pay their taxes in cash. Farmers cannot always arrange cash by selling agricultural produce, because a proper market does not always exist.

According to PROUT, a certain percentage of the farmers produce should be collected as direct taxes. It is also convenient for the government to realize taxes in the form of goods, because it needs to store produce as insurance against future contingencies. Taxes in such a form can easily be distributed from government stores when the people are in need. Moreover, this system will easily meet the requirements of people in the towns and cities. Such a system can rapidly transform the Indian economy.

If agricultural labourers only raise slogans of agricultural reform and assault and kill the landowners, they will not change the agricultural system. It is only possible to consolidate the economy through a constructive approach. Sadvipras will have to shoulder the great responsibility of implementing this approach to ensure the welfare of all.

(1) China has approximately eleven percent arable land, whereas India has about eighty-nine percent arable land.

Farmers Cooperatives

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 20 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Providing food, clothing, housing, education and medical treatment is most important for social security. These five minimum requirements are indispensable to raise the living standard of the people. To guarantee these, the principle of production based on consumption has to be adopted. Special emphasis should be placed on agricultural production because the provision of food is of vital importance, and for this the cooperative system should be rapidly expanded.

According to PROUT, too many people should not be engaged in agriculture. Rather, a major part of the population should depend on industry. Not more than thirty to forty-five percent of the population should be employed in the agricultural sector.

Land is usually divided into economic holdings and uneconomic holdings, according to productivity. Economic holdings are those where the market price of the produce will exceed the cost of production including capital, labour and machinery. Lands which produce economically viable agricultural wealth – that is, where output exceeds input – are called “economic holdings”.

Uneconomic holdings are those where the market price of the produce is less than the cost of production after including the costs of all the inputs. As uneconomic holdings are not profitable, the landowners usually refrain from producing any crops. In the rural economy of a country such as India, if a village is accepted as a production unit, then there may be many plots of land in a village which are not used for producing crops because they are uneconomical.

While implementing PROUT, the question of agrarian revolution will automatically arise. As I have already said, agricultural land should be brought under cooperative management, but the cooperative system should be introduced in two stages. In the first phase of the socialization of land, PROUT will not raise the demand for land ceilings, but the sale of agricultural land will be prohibited and uneconomic landholdings will be brought under cooperative management. The responsibility for cultivating this land will not lie with the landowners but with the cooperatives under the aegis of the immediate government, and with its assistance.

The landowners of the uneconomic landholdings in each village will become the members of the cooperatives in this phase. Thus, cooperatives will only consist of those who merged their land together to make uneconomic landholdings economic. The landowners will give their land, and in this phase they will remain the owners of the land. In cases where the landowners employ labour for cultivation, fifty percent of the net profit will go to the landowners and fifty percent to the labourers who work in the cooperatives.

In this phase, the rivers and streams in a village should be harnessed for the collective welfare. For instance, by constructing embankments and small dams on the rivers, large-scale irrigation, electricity generation, and industries based on local needs should be established.

The first steps must also be taken to alleviate the population pressure on land. An increasing percent of the rural population will have to be employed in industry by establishing agrico-industries and agro-industries. There should be provision for the preservation of crops by building stores and cold-stores under the control of local administrative boards. The cooperatives should be supplied with tractors, manure, seeds, water pumps and other farming equipment through producers cooperatives. Consumers cooperatives will supply the commodities necessary for daily consumption to the rural population.

In the very first phase of establishing cooperatives, agricultural labourers, landless labourers, day labourers and sharecroppers will come within the scope of cooperatives. From this phase, the education system in rural areas should be thoroughly reformed. To arouse the cooperative spirit among the people, there should be extensive training and education, but moral education must take precedence over everything else so that people do not give greater importance to individual interests at the expense of the collective interest.

In the second phase of implementing agricultural cooperatives, the economic holdings of the landowners should be brought under cooperative management. Only after all the uneconomic holdings in a village are brought within the scope of cooperatives should the economic holdings be brought under cooperative management. In this phase it will be easy to apply science and technology extensively in agriculture, increasing the amount of production.

In this second phase, all should be encouraged to join the cooperative system. The net profit will be increased in favour of the labourers working in the cooperatives so that twenty-five percent of the net profit will go to the landowners and seventy-five percent to the labourers. Here labourers means those who employ either their physical or psychic labour in the cooperative. The landowners will benefit in two ways. First, as landowners, they will get twenty-five percent of the net profit of the produce from the land, and secondly, if they are part of the cooperative labour force, they will be entitled to a portion of the seventy-five percent of the profit distributed among the cooperative members.

In this phase, there must be emphasis on the rapid and large- scale establishment of agrico-industries and agro-industries so that the rural population will be dependent more on industry than on agriculture. With the development of such industries, there should be simultaneous emphasis on educational and cultural reforms to further develop the cooperative mentality of the rural population.

From this second phase, production for consumption will increase the standard of living of the rural population, and the basic criteria of social security – that is, the minimum requirements of life – must be arranged for the people.

In the third phase, there should be rational distribution of land and redetermination of ownership. The rational distribution of land will depend on two factors – the minimum holding of land necessary to maintain a family, and the capacity of the farmer to utilize the land. In this phase, the landowners will not be able to employ individual labourers, landless labourers or sharecroppers for the cultivation of land, so it will be more beneficial for them to participate fully in the cooperative system.

In this phase, it will be easy to establish big cooperatives with the extensive application of science, but these cooperatives will not be anything like the huge collective farms of the Soviet Union or China. If cooperatives are allowed to become extremely large, it will be difficult to utilize natural resources efficiently and this will lead to complications in the sphere of production. One of the main defects of the collective farms in socialist countries is their unmanageable size.

In PROUT, the farmers cooperatives themselves will determine the size of the cooperatives. But while building up the cooperative system, two factors should be kept in mind – first, the high quantity and quality of production should be ensured through the application of science and technology while keeping production costs at a minimum; and secondly, the cooperative members must be encouraged to attain maximum psychic and spiritual development at their highest level in exchange for their minimum physical labour.

In the third phase of implementing the cooperative system, one hundred percent of the net profit will be distributed among the cooperative members. The former landowners will identify fully with the cooperatives in this phase.

Through these three phases it will be possible to reduce the excessive population pressure on land and to engage thirty to forty-five percent of the population in agriculture. In the second phase, the problem of unemployment will be tackled through the large-scale establishment of industry, and by the third phase there will be no unemployment problems for the agricultural labourers. By the end of the third phase, the rural sector will be freed from the vexing problems of agricultural and industrial production, unemployment and social security.

In the fourth phase of implementing the cooperative system, there will be no conflict over the ownership of land. The agrarian problems of every village will be solved. All the social security arrangements concerned with food, clothing, housing, education and medical treatment will be easily provided to the people. In this phase it will be possible to make the maximum utilization of the collective physical, psychic and spiritual wealth of every village.

For the total implementation of the cooperative system, there must be proper psychic preparation through internal urge and external pressure, adjusting with the time factor, because people will never accept a system which is forcibly imposed on them. Such a change in the collective psychology will not occur overnight, but will depend on the sentiment of the people.

The time period from the first phase to the fourth phase of the implementation of the cooperative system can be called the transitional period for the implementation of PROUT.

Cooperatives

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 14 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

As you know, human society is one and indivisible. A human being cannot live alone. If a person wants to drink water from a well, he or she needs a rope and a bucket, and to tie the rope one needs a hook. For all these things, the help of the others is indispensable.

In society human beings have to work jointly with others so that everybody can move forward collectively. Samánam ejati iti samájah. That is, society is the collective movement of a group of individuals who have made a unanimous decision to move towards a common goal. If human beings move closely together in all aspects of life, except for those few aspects which are very personal, the better it will be for the welfare of society. Only those things which cannot be done collectively should be done individually.

So, it is always better for people to work together as far as possible – the more that human beings work together, the better it is. If this principle is not followed the spirit of society will be broken, adversely affecting the very existence of human beings. People have to eat food individually – another person cannot eat your food for you – however a meal can be shared collectively. Where individuality dominates human life, the environment, the welfare of different groups and even the continued existence of humanity may be adversely affected.

“Operation” means “to get something done through any medium or media”. Suppose you are operating a tool machine. If this type of operation is done with collective effort then it is called “cooperation”. In the case of cooperation, something is done with equal rights, equal human prestige and equal locus standi.

In every field of collective life there should be cooperation among the members of society. Where this cooperation is between free human beings, each with equal rights and mutual respect for each other, and each working for the welfare of the other, it is called “coordinated cooperation”. Where people do something individually or collectively, but keep themselves under other people’s supervision, then it is called “subordinated cooperation”. In each and every stratum of life, we should do everything with coordinated cooperation and always avoid subordinated cooperation.

In the world today different socio-economic systems are in vogue, but none of these systems are based on coordinated cooperation. Rather, in these systems social relationships are mainly based on subordinated cooperation, resulting in the degeneration of society’s moral fabric. For example, in some countries there is a glaring lack of racial parity and no coordinated cooperation among the different ethnic groups whatsoever. This lack of proper equilibrium and equipoise in social life is causing the whole structure of society to crumble down.

In those countries that follow the commune system there is also lack of coordinated cooperation. In the commune system society is reduced to merely a production-distribution mechanism under a regimented system of control. Rather than increase production, the commune system forces production down. The consequences can be seen in nearly all communist countries: food shortages. Capitalist countries such as Australia, Canada and the USA are selling their food grains to the Soviet Union and China. Moreover, the workers in a commune do not feel oneness with the job, nor do they have the freedom to express all their potentialities. Such a suffocating and mechanical system fosters a materialistic outlook and produces atheistic leadership.

In the commune system there is no personal ownership. Without a sense of personal ownership people do not labour hard or care for any property. If farmers feel they have permanent usufructuary rights to the land they will get a better out-turn. Such a sentiment is suppressed in the commune system, resulting in sluggish production and psychic oppression. Intelligent people are forced to do work which is unsuitable for them and are paid the same wages as ordinary workers. There is no incentive system and individual initiative by meritorious people is not encouraged, so naturally people do not work hard. Such a system can never solve society’s economic problems, either in agriculture or in industry. Rather, it will only aggravate existing problems and create fresh social problems. The production and distribution systems of the commune system are fundamentally defective, exploitative and anti-human.

The commune system is based on subordinated cooperation – the relationships are those of supervisor and supervised or master and servant. Such relationships are detrimental for human progress and retard any possibility of progressive movement. They are ultravires to the wonts of the human mind.

PROUT supports the implementation of the cooperative system because its inner spirit is one of coordinated cooperation. Only the cooperative system can ensure the healthy, integrated progress of humanity, and establish complete and everlasting unity among the human race. People should work to enjoy sweeter fruits by establishing the cooperative system. PROUT raises the slogans: “We want cooperatives, not communes,” and, “We are not slaves of communes.”

If the spirit of cooperation is followed, those commodities which are essential for supplying the minimum requirements such as food, clothing, housing, education and medical treatment will have to be cooperatively produced. Food is the most important commodity, and because of the importance of food, agriculture is the most important sector of the economy. It is generally the case that the staple food of a country is also its main food crop. In Bengal, for example, the main food is rice and so paddy is the main crop. Similarly, the main crop in the Punjab is wheat, in Ireland potato, and in Scotland rye, oats and barley.

For the proper reorganization and maximum utilization of agricultural land, the cooperative system is most preferable. The fertility of the soil depends upon the natural terrain of the countryside, and the size of a harvest depends largely upon the water content of the soil. High land will not generally produce very much, even if it is fertile, but it is often possible to produce good crops on less fertile soil at lower levels because water usually accumulates there. Even on relatively flat land, agricultural plots should be arranged depending upon the level of the field in relation to the flow of water, or water should be channelized from upper levels to lower levels. Cooperatives will follow such an arrangement.

Land is extremely important in the psychology of farmers because they are very attached to their land. Farmers may give away hundreds of kilos of produce, but they would never voluntarily give away even a few square metres of their land. Suppose many small farmers own a total of 200 acres. If they form a cooperative and keep a record of their shares based on the size of their individual holdings, a sense of ownership is maintained. If all the land is on the same level then the boundaries between the small plots can be broken down, increasing the area of arable land. In such a system the psychology of the farmers will not be affected and they will not feel any insecurity. They will be able to increase the area of land under production by clearing away the boundaries which needlessly divide the land into many individual holdings and by scientifically cultivating infertile land.

Farmers who own only several square metres of land cannot keep bullocks and a plough. They have to give their land to someone who can cultivate it, as in the sharecropping system. If they do give their land to a sharecropper, they rarely get anything in return. This predicament arises because the size of the land is so small. If cultivation is done on a cooperative basis many small plots can be merged into one large plot. This will be of great collective benefit to the farmers.

In India in the time of Akbar a system was in vogue whereby boundaries were constructed around plots of land. Akbar introduced a new system in which the northern and western boundaries of each plot were owned by the owner of that plot. When cooperatives remove boundaries to form larger areas of agricultural land, the land occupied by the northern and western boundaries of each plot should revert to the owner of that plot.

Today for the cultivation of land farmers need things such as fertilizer, a tractor and irrigation water. Animal fertilizers are insufficient – farmers need chemical fertilizers. But wherever chemical fertilizers are used intensively, the land becomes infertile and useless after some time. Chemical fertilizers eventually destroy the vital energy of the land and it becomes lifeless, like cement. Intensive research should be conducted on how to use chemical fertilizers in agriculture without any ill effects on the land.

In the system of individual farming it is not possible to escape the ill effects of chemical fertilizers. However, in the cooperative system there is great scope for agricultural research and development to discover new ways to better utilize and prolong the vitality of land. The benefit of a cooperative is that it combines the wealth and resources of many individuals and harnesses them in a united way.

There was a time when farmers used to leave their land unused for a year after several years of continuous cultivation, but this is not possible today. So it is necessary to adopt a system whereby either chemical fertilizers will be used which will not decrease soil fertility, or high yields will be achieved without using chemical fertilizers at all. I am confident that this will be achieved in the very near future.

Agriculture should have the same status as industry. This policy is not followed in many undeveloped and developing countries today, and can best be implemented through the cooperative system. For example, the apple orchards of Himachal Pradesh should function as cooperatives rather than private farms, and so should the packaging industry for apple transportation and marketing. The processing and packaging of apples should be regarded as part of the farming industry. Those employed in agriculture should get bonuses in the same way as those employed in industry. Thus, farmers or agricultural cooperatives should organize the whole agricultural sector of the economy on the basis of industry.

PROUT advocates the reorganization of all agricultural land according to a phase-wise plan. In the first phase all uneconomic landholdings should be taken over by cooperative management for the benefit of both those who previously owned the land and agricultural labourers who work in the cooperative. In the second phase all landowners should be requested to join the cooperative system. In the third phase there should be rational distribution of land and redetermination of ownership. Finally, in the fourth phase there will be no conflict over the ownership of land. People will learn to think for the collective welfare rather than for petty self-interest. This psychic expansion will create a more congenial social environment. However, such a change in the collective psychology will not come overnight, but will occur gradually according to the sentiment of the people. When such a system has been introduced the present conflict among landowners and landless rural workers will no longer exist.

In the initial stage agricultural cooperatives will be formed with the mutual cooperation of groups of farmers. Suppose A, B, C and D are four farmers who have consolidated their land into a cooperative in the following proportions: A two acres, B five acres, C ten acres and D fifteen acres. The profits from the sale of their crops should be shared in proportion to the amount of land each gave to the cooperative, and the service each rendered for the production of these crops. Farmers will receive produce and profits according to the number of their shares in the cooperative and their labour. As the yield of land increases due to the continuous development of improved scientific techniques, farmers can expect increased productivity and greater prosperity.

A record should be kept of the productive capacity of all the land included in the cooperative. Shares should be allocated on the basis of this productivity. For example, if a farmer has thirty acres of land of which fifteen acres are highly productive and fifteen acres are of low productivity, then his or her shares should take into account the differences in productivity. If some landowners do not want to work in an agricultural cooperative their land should still be included in the cooperative. They should also be considered as cooperative members and should get shares based on the size and productivity of their land. Of course, landowners who do not work in the cooperative will not be entitled to wages.

In the cooperative system farmers need not sell their produce immediately after harvesting due to pressure of circumstances. In the individualistic or private enterprise system, most farmers have to sell their produce immediately in order to get sufficient money to survive. But in the cooperative system farmers will enjoy more financial security as the cooperative can advance money to individual farmers and sell the crops at the most favourable time for the best price. That is, the cooperative can determine how much to sell and when to sell in order to get the best profit. Cooperatives will also be able to fix the price of their own produce within certain price limits. Thus, cooperatives will get the profit which is taken by middlemen and profiteers in the individualistic or capitalistic system.

In the present system after the harvest poor farmers have to pay off the loans they took for such things as irrigation, seeds and labour to produce their crops. In addition, they often purchase clothing for their families for the following year. Due to their urgent need for money they are frequently forced to sell their harvest at virtually give away prices. This type of sale under the pressure of circumstances is called a “distress sale”. To protect the farmers from distress sales, the cooperative system is essential. In a cooperative, farmers will keep the necessary quantity of farm produce to meet their food needs for a year and will sell the excess produce to the cooperative at the rate fixed by the cooperative. When the market price is reasonable, the cooperative will sell the produce. The farmers will then receive their percentage of the profit which will be proportional to the amount of their land shareholding in the cooperative.

Taxes, levies, excise duties, etc., should be collectively paid by the cooperative, thus freeing individual farmers from financial pressure and economic exploitation. In many economically developed countries, there are no land taxes because the revenue collected from such taxes is only a very small part of the total revenue.

The workforce in the cooperative system will be composed of the shareholding farmers and non-shareholding labourers. Both groups will benefit: the shareholding farmers will get regular salaries for their work plus a return on their shares, while the labourers will enjoy stable employment and favourable wages.

There are two types of non-shareholding labourers working in agricultural cooperatives – those who are permanent labourers and those who are casual or contract labourers. The permanent labourers will get bonuses as incentives besides their wages, while casual labourers will only get wages for their labour. Those labourers who give the greatest service to the cooperative should get the greatest bonuses. Skilled workers should get paid more than unskilled workers. This will be an incentive for all to become skilled labourers and to work harder. Bonuses should be paid according to the amount of wages which should reflect both the skill and productivity of the labourer.

Members who purchase shares in the cooperative should have no power or right to transfer their shares without the permission of the cooperative, but their shares may be inherited. If some cooperative members have no descendants, then their shares should pass on to their legally authorized successors who will become members of the cooperative if they are not already members. The reason for this policy is that it prevents capitalists from purchasing large numbers of shares in a cooperative and speculating in the market place. This type of economic activity can easily lead to a depression.

In different countries there are different systems of inheritance, so the right of inheritance should be decided according to the system in vogue in a particular country. For example, in Bengal the Dáyabhága system is followed, in other places in India the Hindu Code is the established system, while in other countries other systems are practised. If this arrangement is followed, cooperative members will not need to go to court or get involved in litigation as the zamindars of the past used to do. As all members of the cooperative will be from the same vicinity or members of the same village, they will all know each other, and thus there will be little difficulty in deciding who should be the legally appointed recipient of the shares. The members of the cooperative themselves will be able to decide who can claim the right of inheritance to the shares owned by the deceased members.

Disadvantaged or minor landowners will also benefit in the cooperative system. A widow, a disabled farmer, or a minor boy or girl who owns some land will derive an income from the land based on the number of shares in the cooperative. In the system of private ownership their land would have remained unutilized, and they would have remained poor. Therefore, even if cooperative members are unable to do any work, they will still be entitled to an income from the total profit of the cooperative.

Farmers may also create producers cooperatives to produce items for various industries. Thus, some farmers cooperatives may function as both farmers and producers cooperatives. Raw materials which are of non-farming origin, such as limestone for the production of cement, should be processed by producers cooperatives. Cooperatives which are only agricultural should sell their produce directly to the producers cooperative which in turn can manufacture a variety of consumer goods. Farmers cooperatives which also function as producers cooperatives can increase their profitability in various ways. For example, such cooperatives could produce oil from rice husks. The money earned may be reallocated and reinvested in the farmers-cum-producers cooperative or used for research and development.

Farmers in agricultural cooperatives will be able to exert collective pressure on the local, state or federal governments for different benefits and facilities. For example, in India individual farmers who grow fruit normally use deep well irrigation. But this can adversely affect fruit production because if the water-table drops too far below the roots, the fruit trees will gradually wither and die. In such circumstances shallow tube wells are better, but these wells cannot supply sufficient water for irrigation. Farmers need ponds, barrages and lift and shift irrigation facilities, and for these things they may need government assistance.

It is the cardinal right of the people to be guaranteed the minimum requirements of food, clothing, housing, education and medical treatment. The proper supply of irrigation water is also a cardinal right, because without water, food, which is the most important of the minimum requirements, cannot be produced. Irrigation water is like the apex of a spinning top – without it the top cannot spin.

Besides agricultural or farmers cooperatives, PROUT advocates the formation of other types of cooperatives, including producers and consumers cooperatives. Producers cooperatives include agro-industries, agrico-industries and non-agricultural industries. The total profit of such cooperatives should be distributed among the workers and members of the cooperative according to their individual capital investment in the cooperative and the service they render to the production and management of the cooperative.

Similarly, consumers cooperatives should be formed by like-minded persons who will share the profits of the cooperative according to their individual labour and capital investment. Those who are engaged in the management of such cooperatives will also be entitled to draw salaries on the basis of the services they render to the cooperative. Consumers cooperatives will distribute consumer goods to members of society at reasonable rates.

Commodities can be divided into three categories – essential commodities such as rice, pulse, salt and clothing; demi-essential commodities such as oil and antiseptic soap; and non-essential commodities such as luxury goods. If hoarders create artificial shortages of non-essential commodities common people will not be affected, but if they accumulate essential commodities then common people will suffer tremendously. This situation can be avoided if consumers cooperatives purchase essential commodities directly from producers cooperatives or agricultural cooperatives.

Capitalists hoard essential commodities and create artificial scarcity to extract the maximum profit. As a result consumers pay inflated prices for essential commodities, and sometimes they even find that such goods are not available at all. Middlemen and profiteers create artificial shortages of essential commodities knowing that people will certainly purchase them, even by taking loans, but few people take loans to purchase luxury goods. If the distribution of essential commodities is done through consumers cooperatives, middlemen and profiteers will be eliminated.

Consumer cooperatives should be supplied with commodities from both agricultural and producers cooperatives. Commodities which do not go directly from agricultural cooperatives to consumer cooperatives should be produced by producers cooperatives. In addition, non-farming commodities should be compulsorily produced by producers cooperatives. For example, agricultural or producers cooperatives which produce cotton or silk thread should sell the thread to weavers cooperatives which can produce cloth on their power looms. Hand looms can also be used where intricate design work is required, but generally weavers cooperatives should install the latest power looms. The weavers cooperatives will in turn supply consumers cooperatives.

The number of items considered essential commodities should be continually and progressively revised and expanded with the changes in time, space and person. Such revisions should be made by the government and not by the board of directors of a particular cooperative. What is considered a demi-essential commodity today may be treated as an essential commodity tomorrow. Demi-essential commodities which may be affected by artificial shortages causing suffering to common people, should be produced by producers cooperatives. The production of luxury goods can be left in the hands of the private sector. Essential commodities or services of a non-farming nature coming within the scope of producers cooperatives, and which require huge capital investments, should be managed by the government. The railway system is an example.

So, for the establishment of a healthy society, agricultural cooperatives, essential commodity producers cooperatives and essential commodity consumer cooperatives are a must.

Cooperative members should form a board of directors for each cooperative. The board should decide the amount of profit to be divided among the members; that is, the dividend to be paid to each shareholder. However, the total profit should not be distributed in the form of dividends – some should be kept for reinvestment or purchasing items such as tractors, manure, etc.; some should also be used for increasing authorized capital; and some should be deposited in the reserve fund. The reserve fund should be used to increase the value of the dividend in the years when production is low. If this system is followed the authorized capital will not be affected.

The board of directors should be elected from among the cooperative members – their positions should not be honorary. Care should be taken to ensure that not a single immoral person is elected to the board. All directors must be moralists.

To stop black-marketeering strong steps need to be taken by the government. For example, to protect the clothing industry, the government should pass a law which prevents the sale of any clothing without the trademark of the producers cooperative where it is made. Thus, if black-marketeers try to sell any clothing without trademarks, they can be easily caught. This simple but effective remedy is known to many intelligent people, but still they do nothing. This is because they are the agents of capitalists who need money from these black-marketeers and hoarders to fight their election campaigns. This kind of corruption in the electoral system is part of democracy, so we can say that democracy is not the best form of government. Hoarding, profiteering and black-marketeering cannot be stopped in the democratic system because those who try to stop it will be thrown out of power. In the high point of the Kśatriya Era smuggling and hoarding were controlled, but as soon as the influence of the vipras or vaeshyas emerged, the control over these corrupt practices slackened.

Many small satellite cooperatives should be formed to supply various items to large producers cooperatives. Take a car factory, for example. The many different parts for a motor car can be locally manufactured in small cooperatives. The members of these small satellite cooperatives may even carry on their work from their homes, involving all their family members. The main function of large producers cooperatives will be to assemble the different car parts. This will have two benefits: the large cooperative will not require many labourers hence labour unrest will be minimized, and labour costs will be reduced and thus the cost of the commodities will be kept low.

The problem of a floating population and immigrant labour will not occur in the cooperative system, as cooperative members will have to be local people. Floating labourers should have no right to be cooperative members – migratory birds have no place in cooperatives – as they can disturb a whole economy. Howrah district, for example, produces sufficient crops in a season to feed the local people for seventeen months, but due to immigrant labour the produce is consumed in six and a half months. The elimination of the floating population will also protect the social life of the cooperative from the possibility of adverse social influences.

In the cooperative system unemployment will be solved. As production increases the need for more facilities and resources will also increase. Educated people can be employed as skilled workers. There will also be a need for tractor drivers, labourers and cultivators, and cooperative members will naturally do this work. Village people will not need to move to the cities for employment. In the cooperative system there should be no compulsory age for superannuation. People should be free to work as long as they like, providing their health permits.

Those socio-economic units which do not have a sufficient supply of raw materials will have to manufacture synthetic or artificial raw materials. Suppose a unit or region does not have an adequate supply of fodder to feed its cattle or sheep. Will it import fodder from another unit or region? No, it should manufacture artificial fodder instead. Similarly, it takes a substantial volume of cotton to produce one dhoti [the traditional lower garment worn by men in northeastern India]. To transport large amounts of cotton also requires much energy, and so if it is not readily available, synthetic fabric can be produced instead.

As science advances, cooperatives will develop and manufacture a great variety of commodities from synthetic raw materials. In the capitalist system, raw materials are imported from other countries or regions in order to manufacture finished products. Cooperatives will not follow this system. They will develop their own raw materials through research so that they are not dependent on foreign raw materials.

Through the cooperative system human society will progress with accelerating speed, ushering in a new revolution in science. No part of the universe will be left unutilized – every nook and corner will be properly used. Where fodder is available, grazing land, dairy farms and milk production can be developed. Where fodder is not available, synthetic milk will be produced. In this way progress and development will be maintained in every field of life.

The day is very near when science will be guided by spiritually oriented intellectuals. When this day comes, science will move forward with leaps and bounds, causing the intellectual capacity of human beings to increase immensely. Cooperatives will greatly assist this psychic and spiritual advancement.

To enhance the unity in society we should encourage all common factors and discourage all fissiparous factors. For example, in India there are many common factors which help create unity, and there are many fissiparous factors which create disunity. The most fundamental point of unity in India is that the Indian mentality is God-centred; that is, it is intrinsically based on theism. It accepts divine providence as a cardinal human factor. Even Indian communists are theists in their hearts, but on a political platform they speak as atheists. Although the spiritual standard of the people is high, the moral standard is lower than in western countries. Thus, the moral standard needs to be increased. Moralists should be created. For this a universal ideology should be propagated in every nook and corner of the country.

Another point of unity in India is the Sanskrit language. The Indian people may or may not know Sanskrit, but they all certainly have a deep love and respect for it. If Sanskrit had become the national language of India instead of Hindi, all the present problems relating to the national language would have been avoided.

Take another example, the calendar system. In North India and some parts of South India the lunar calendar, called Saḿvat, which depends upon the movement of the moon, is followed. In this system the seventh aśárh is in the morning, the eighth aśárh is at noon and the ninth aśárh is at night. A lot of problems arise with such a calendar. In Bengal, Assam, Manipur, the Punjab, Jammu, Kashmir, Orissa and some parts of South India the solar calendar, called Shakábda, which depends upon the movement of the sun, is used. According to this system, in Bengal the first Vaeshákha is on the fourteenth of April and in the Punjab the first Vaeshákha is on the thirteenth of April. Should we encourage this difference in the calendar system? No, so either the Shakábda system or the international calendar system should be followed. So, to integrate the entire human race, unifying factors should be encouraged and fissiparous factors should be discouraged.

The sweetest unifying factors are love and sympathy for humanity. The wonts of the human heart are joy, pleasure and beatitude. In the physical realm the best expression of this human sweetness is the cooperative system. The cooperative system is the best representation of the sweet nectar of humanity.

Integrated Farming

Published in:
Ideal Farming Part 2
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 16 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Self-reliance is the main objective of our farming projects, hence they should be oriented towards production. They should not be dependent on outside resources. An integrated approach to farming should include such areas as agriculture, horticulture, floriculture, sericulture, lac culture, apiculture, dairy farming, animal husbandry, irrigation, pisciculture, pest control, the proper use of fertilizers, cottage industries, energy production, research centres and water conservation. This approach will help make farming projects self-reliant, and should be adopted.

Agriculture is the science of cultivating the soil and rearing animals. It includes the production of staple crops. Staple crops which are important in Bengal include pulses of many kinds, cereals, coarse grains, oil-seeds, sugar crops and vegetables.

Pulses provide protein and supplement manure as they fix nitrogen in the soil from the air, but calcium, phosphates, potash and so on still have to be added to pulse crops.

Cereals are rich in carbohydrates and include rice, wheat, maize, oats, barley and rye. Coarse grains include all types of millet, sorghum, barley, rye and buckwheat. Oil-seeds include mustard, soya, sesame, linseed, safflower and sunflower. It is most important to exchange seeds between India and the rest of the world. Sugar crops include sugar cane, sugar beet, date palm and palmyra. Spices include cloves, cumin, coriander, etc. Many types of medicinal plants can be grown in Bengal. At Ánanda Nagar many herbaria should be established.

In India many seasonal vegetables such as summer vegetables, winter vegetables and all-season vegetables are grown. The variety of vegetables that are produced should be increased. Onions and garlic are grown for sale to the public and for processing into medicines, but of course they are not beneficial for those doing spiritual practices.

Some other items include coffee, cocoa, tea and rubber. Tea gardens and rubber plantations can be grown for use by the local people and as cash crops. Cash crops will help to transform the local economy. If cash crops are grown by cooperatives, they can help raise the economic standard of poor local people in a short time.

In the case of yellow mustard, big lentils and wheat, there is a choice of early, medium and late varieties, but in the case of paddy there is no such choice. If the early, medium and late varieties of any crop are available for plantation, and sufficient time is at hand to choose any of them, then the early variety should be chosen first for plantation. Proper planning should be done so that the production of this crop is increased. In case the early variety fails, then the medium variety should be tried. If everything is done properly, the production of this variety will be almost equal to the early variety. If the medium variety also fails for some reason, then lastly the late variety should be tried. If the late variety is planted in the beginning of the season and fails for some reason, then there is no scope for cultivation and the season will be lost. Liquid manure should be applied along with the second irrigation after proper weeding.

Paddy is the staple food in northeastern India. In the boro variety of paddy, weeding should be done one month after transplantation, and then liquid manure should be applied. Care should be taken that the liquid manure is not poisonous, otherwise it will harm the pisciculture. Even rocky land can be made fit for cultivation after filling it up with good soil.

We should try our best to grow napier grass for cattle fodder on hillocks wherever possible. It is more difficult to grow napier grass on hills than on flat land because it takes a lot of water. Nevertheless we should try, in order to save the best crop land for other crops. Where there are railway lines which belong to the railway department going through agricultural land, cow pea, late áus paddy or black gram should be cultivated on both sides of the railway lines.

Whenever plants from frigid and temperate zones are transplanted into a warm or hot climate, they should be planted on high land, near stones and rocks if possible, so that at night they will be kept cool.

The fencing of all farm compounds except beauty spots may be utilized as a platform for spinach in spring and summer, and for beans in summer, the rainy season, autumn and winter. In the case of beauty spots, the fencing may be utilized as a platform for flower creepers.

Farming projects should also cultivate some selected items for special emergency survival. These include vegetables, pulses, potato and fodder for dairy cows to ensure milk production. All farming projects must start the production of these items immediately. They are the minimum items necessary for physical survival. These items will ensure your survival in any difficult times that may come in the future.

Fruit and vegetable gardens should be established on all farming projects. There are many varieties of fruit. Fruits can be utilized to make jams, marmalade, jellies, dried fruits, etc.

Floriculture is the cultivation of flowers. Jasmine, magnolia, roses and so on can be used to make essences which in turn can be used to produce many other products. Tube roses can be grown and sold throughout the world just as roses are today. Roses grow very well in red soil. Floral nectar can be collected from lotus and is very good for all kinds of eye diseases, including retinal detachment.

Honey can be prepared from the flowers of the lotus, lily, cornel and cotton tree. A huge amount of honey is available in the flowers of the lotus, lily and cotton tree. The lotus and lily also give floral nectar – nectar which is prepared by the flowers, not by the bees. This is a part of floriculture. Floral nectar should be produced from floriculture.

How can floral nectar be collected? It has to be collected with the help of a dropper or syringe. When I was young I used to eat the seeds of the lotus. In those days they were generally available throughout Burdwan. I also used to take floral nectar by licking the flower. From the honey and floral nectar of lotus and lily, many types of medicines can be made. If this honey and floral nectar is sold in the market, it will command a very high price. To extract floral nectar one has to employ the same method as doctors use to extract blood. This is because many ants and insects feed on floral nectar. A syringe can extract it without getting clogged up.

The stems of okra can be used for a special purpose. Suppose you have a pineapple field which is not producing both fruits and flowers. If the stems are burnt and scattered throughout the field, the fumes and smoke will help the pineapple to develop fruit and flowers at the same time. But one should be careful that the pineapple plant is not burnt. This process will produce both fruit and flowers very quickly.

The field of floriculture has been neglected very much. It should be developed. We can easily make rose scent and rose water from the rose garden at Ánanda Nagar.

In Bengal production based on insects has three main branches – sericulture, lac culture and apiculture.

The first is sericulture. There are two main varieties of silk in Bengal – mulberry and non-mulberry. Mulberry silkworms feed on mulberry leaves, and can produce two qualities of silk – fine quality (garad) and rough quality (matka). Non-mulberry silk includes muuṋgá, tasar and endy. In the muuṋgá variety the silkworms feed on drumsticks. In the tasar variety the worms feed on many plants such as sal [Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.], arjuna [Terminalia arjuna Bedd.], Indian plum [Zizyphus jujube Linn.], asan [Terminalia tomentosa Bedd.], Assamese swalu [Kadsura hetroclita], a bush which is mostly confined to Assam, and Indian rosewood (svet sal) [Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.]. In the endy variety the silkworms feed on castor leaves.

The mulberry silkworm is a domesticated variety of silkworm. Tasar is a naturally grown variety of silkworm. In this variety the cocoons are put on trees in order for the larvae to feed. Once the larvae have hatched the cocoons are collected from the trees. In tasar production the trees are kept to the manageable height of six feet, otherwise it would be impractical to collect the cocoons.

In domesticated silk production moths lay eggs, and then larvae hatch from the eggs, eat leaves, grow to their full size and finally spin a cocoon made of silk. The cocoons are usually dried in the sun or boiled to kill the larvae. As the larvae are in a state of natural hibernation, when they are killed in this way they do not feel pain. The silk cocoons are collected and spun into silk thread. Silk production is a profitable industry, and silk is an excellent clothing fibre. Some silk plants such as mulberry and Indian plum also produce fruit. Different crops can be grown around silk plants so that there is maximum utilization of agricultural land.

Non-grafted seedlings of mulberry give more foliage for silk production than grafted seedlings. Malda is a good source of mulberry. Mulberry seedlings should be planted in such a way that their shade does not fall on agricultural land.

1) Where the land is extremely rocky and there is no soil, soil should be brought from outside so that palm, Indian plum and custard-apple saplings, not seedlings, can be planted between two mulberry plants. Research should be done on the custard-apple and the Indian plum.

2) Where the land is extremely rocky but there are accumulations of soil between the rocks, thorny puneala plum (thorny paniala) [Flacourtia jangomas (Lour) Raeusch.] and custard-apple can be planted between two mulberry plants. Research should be done on the thorny puneala plum.

3) Where the land is less rocky, non-thorny puneala plum (non-thorny paniala) and custard-apple can be planted between two mulberry plants. Research should be done on the non-thorny puneala plum.

4) Where the land is a bit better than in number three above, date palm (khejur) and custard-apple saplings can be planted between two mulberry plants.

Custard-apple varieties from abroad should be brought to India as far as possible, especially the variety from the Philippines, which is a large variety. Sporting goods can be made from mulberry wood. Mulberry can be grown successfully in Ánanda Nagar.

Next is lac culture. Lacquer is produced by insects grown on trees such as palash [Butea frondosa Koenig-ex Roxb.], Indian plum and kusum [Schleichera trijuga Willd.]. Lac should not be grown on all Indian plum trees, otherwise fruit production will be affected. Lacquer may be used as protective varnish for furniture, etc.

In apiculture bees produce rectified honey and pure beeswax from a variety of flowers. The types of bees include wild bees like rock bees which cannot be tamed, and bush bees which can be tamed. Specially bred bees should be encouraged, but wild bees should not be prevented from entering our gardens. All bees, including wild bees, should be allowed in our gardens.

Bee boxes can be located near oil-seeds, flower gardens, neem trees, Indian olives and grapes. The honey in the bee boxes should be collected regularly. In Bengal the period of maximum flowering for these plants is March, April, May and June.

Floral nectar can be collected directly from some special flowers which naturally produce honey. More research on all kinds of floral honey should be done.

Dairy farming includes milk production from dairy cows, goats, sheep and buffaloes. Milk powder and dehydrated curd should also be produced. Animals are not to be sold for slaughter.

Irrigation is also an important aspect of farming. As a principle, subterranean water should not be used for irrigation purposes. Subterranean water should not be disturbed, otherwise the level of the water-table will drop, leading to an acute shortage of water. The best system is to collect surface water. The rainwater, even from light showers, should be collected where it falls. If the huge reserves of water under some deserts are harnessed, it may do more harm than good. It is always better to conserve surface water.

Water conservation, irrigation and afforestation are essential for desert reclamation. In the Thar Desert of India, a canal has been constructed to bring water from the Ganges to irrigate the land. The Ganga Nagar area has been reclaimed and is now producing large quantities of wheat. The canal can be extended even further into the desert. Conserving surface water is the best method of irrigation and is preferable to exploiting underground water reserves.

Ecologists claim that some deserts are essential for keeping the global ecology in a balanced state. The high day temperatures and the cold night temperatures that occur in desert regions create a useful effect. Because the air in the desert is dry, the hot air rises and creates a vacuum which sucks in other air, generating a chain reaction. Moist air comes in from the sea and causes rainfall. If deserts vanish entirely, the overall rainfall will be reduced.

Certain plants such as sirisha [Albizzia lebbeck benth.], shisu [Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.], Himalayan white oak [Quercus incana Roxb.] and ferns have the capacity to attract rain clouds. They also create a congenial environment for other plants.

Fish should be cultivated in lakes, dams and ponds because they help conserve and purify the water. Small fish can also be cultivated in the paddy fields during the rainy season. Fish are the natural food of birds, so they are an essential part of a balanced ecology.

In the rainy season in the last week of Shrávańa there is water in the paddy fields of Bengal. In these fields we should cultivate fish, but fishermen should not be allowed to catch these fish while the paddy is still growing. Harmful insecticides or pesticides should not be used in these fields because they will kill the fish and pollute the water system.

Alternative pesticides like neem paste pesticide should be used. If copper sulphate spray is used, care should be taken to use the minimum amount because it is harmful. Neem paste can be prepared from neem leaves. Before planting the paddy, during the last ploughing, neem oil cakes should be ploughed into the fields. In addition, neem paste pesticide with urea should be used whenever there is an attack of insects. Copper sulphate solution can also be mixed with urea.

Fish should not be the food of human beings, but the food of jackals, birds, foxes and other fish and crabs. If the paddy water drains into ponds, lakes or rivers, small fish will flourish and become the food of larger fish, birds and animals. In this way the farmers will be helping maintain ecological balance.

Some special medicines can be prepared for particular crops. For example, to kill the worms which attack cauliflower crops, soapy water mixed with a small amount of kerosene may be sprayed on the cauliflowers. Because the water is soapy the kerosene will easily wash off the cauliflowers and not be harmful to human beings.

Snakes will most likely be found wherever wax gourd is cultivated. To avoid this, iishanmula [Aristolochia indica Linn.] is used because snakes are afraid of its smell. Snakes are also afraid of any copper salt. Wherever there is copper salt snakes will not be found, as in Ghatshila and Maobhandar, near Tatanagar. Water kept in a bronze pot becomes antiseptic due to the copper in the bronze. Copper sulphate is poisonous for human beings.

In the distant past, large animals used to go to predetermined places to die. Wild elephants still have this habit. At such places, with the passage of time the bones of the animals became deposits of calcium sulphate and calcium carbonate. Wherever cretaceous animals lived in groups, limestone will be found. In Assam, for example, limestone and petroleum can be found. The fat of these huge animals became petroleum and the bones became limestone. In Ráŕh, in Jalda and Jaipur, limestone can also be found. Limestone can be used to manufacture good quality cement, and it helps make oranges sweet.

There are two types of fertilizers – organic and inorganic. When fertilizers are used, bacteria are also being used indirectly. These bacteria function in two ways – one positive and the other negative. When you utilize bio-fertilizer bacteria, that is, organic fertilizers, the function of the bacteria will only be positive. You should start practical research into positive microvita from the study of bio-fertilizers and their positive functions.

Among the organic fertilizers from animals, the urine and dung from sheep are the best manures. Sheep to be raised in Ráŕh can be acquired from Bengal, Jammu, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Varieties from Australia can also be used. Materials for bio-gas include cow, buffalo and sheep dung, the dung of mammals kept in protected compounds, and the organic material from beauty spots. Water hyacinths are also a good raw material for producing bio-gas, but cow dung is best. The dung of hybrid animals is not as good as that of pure or natural breeds because hybrids are more prone to disease.

The best manure for green vegetables is rotten vegetables. Cow dung may also serve the same purpose. In the case of gourd, oil cakes and mustard cakes mixed equally with soil will increase production.

Once before I said that farmers need fertilizers for the maximum utilization of agricultural land. Animal fertilizers are insufficient – farmers need chemical fertilizers. However, it is noticeable that whenever chemical fertilizers are used intensively, the land becomes infertile and useless after some time. This is because chemical fertilizers destroy the vital energy of the land so that it becomes lifeless, just like cement. Intensive research should be conducted on how to use chemical fertilizers in agriculture without producing any ill effects on the land. In the system of individual farming it is not possible to escape the ill effects of chemical fertilizers.

The solution to this problem lies in the cooperative system. In the cooperative system there is great scope for agricultural research and development to discover new ways to better utilize and prolong the vitality of the land. The benefit of cooperatives is that they combine the wealth and resources of many individuals and harness them in a united way.

There was a time when farmers used to leave their land fallow for a year after several years of continuous cultivation, but this is not possible today. It is now necessary to adopt a system in which either chemical fertilizers that do not decrease soil fertility are used, or high yields are produced without using chemical fertilizers at all. I am optomistic that this will be achieved in the near future.

Various types of cottage industries should be established on master units,⁽¹⁾ subject to the availability of raw materials. Some types of cottage industries include the following:

1) The first stage of processing farm products of animal and insect origin, such as milk, wool, silk thread, lacquer, honey and wax.

2) Producing all types of farm products derived from plants, such as papad from pulse, beaten rice from rice, cereal flakes from different types of cereals, jams from fruits, etc.

3) Industrial products and herbal medicines of plant origin, such as essences, ayurvedic medicines and naturopathic remedies.

4) Medicines of non-plant origin, such as allopathic and biochemic medicines, as well as medical equipment such as pressure gauges.

5) Different fibres produced from plants, such as jute, cotton, linen, hemp, banana, pineapple, sisal, okra and basil.

6) Fibre products of non-plant origin, such as nylon, rayon, plastic and artificial silk.

7) Articles of mineral but non-metallic origin, such as calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate, calcium phosphate, conch shells, rubber and oyster shells.

8) Non-metallic products, such as soap, shampoo, liquid soap, toothpaste, toothbrushes, detergent and nectar.

9) Metallic products from gold, aluminum, bronze, brass, zinc, etc., as well as tin articles, thermometers, crockery and utensils.

10) Iron materials and articles, such as steel, stainless steel, grinding machines, cement and fertilizers.

These are just a few examples of some of the items which can be produced. There are in fact many items which can be produced under each category. In poor areas, two or three simple industries can be started first, such as manufacturing briefcases, medicines or making flour with grinding machines. If cottage industries are properly established, poor local people will enjoy immediate economic benefits.

Energy which can be produced on a small scale includes solar energy, thermal power, bio-gas, hydroelectricity and pneumatic power. Solar energy for lights and water pumps can be produced from solar panels. Thermal power can be produced from coal and other fossil fuels. Bio-gas for generators, cooking, lighting and small generators can be produced from bio-mass waste. The bio-gas plant harnesses the gas generated by the decomposition of the bio-mass, which can then be collected and used for various purposes. Cow, buffalo and human excreta can be used in bio-gas plants.

The slurry is an excellent manure because it breaks down in about one week, whereas fresh manure takes up to six months. Slurry takes only three days to reach the roots of a plant compared to three months for normal manure. Slurry can nourish a plant within ten days, whereas normal cow dung takes up to nine months.

Small-scale hydroelectric plants can also be constructed in the right environment. For example, on the Daksina River at Ánanda Nagar a plant which can generate hydroelectricity can be constructed. It will be able to give power for up to nine months of the year.

Pneumatic power is one of the cheapest sources of energy for pumps and generators. It is very cheap because the costs include only the initial capital investment to construct the mill and the maintenance costs. It is ideal in windy locations.

Research centres should be developed on all large farming projects and master units. Although all types of research should be encouraged, first preference should be given to agriculture, second preference to biology (first preference to zoology and second preference to botany) and third preference to chemistry.

Agricultural research should be done on a wide range of subjects including seeds, fruits, flowers, silk, herbs, medicinal plants, summer vegetables, winter vegetables, all-season vegetables, spices, pulses and paddy. Some nuts and fruits such as walnut, chestnut, almond, persimmon, cherry, apricot, grape, fig, pistachio and Paraguay coconut should also be subjects of research.

Research centres can also be established for fibre plants such as jute, agave, hemp, okra, permanent and winter cotton, linseed, remi and pineapple. Oil-seeds such as melon, cucumber, linseed, sesame, safflower and mustard should also be thoroughly studied. New techniques for extracting more oil from oil-seeds and deodorizing the oil should be developed.

Take the example of okra. Edible oil can be extracted from okra seeds. This oil does not have a high fat content. The stem is low in calories. The fibre of the plant can be used to make cloth. The remaining part of the plant can be used for fodder and fertilizer. Okra is grown above the soil, so it can be grown with a tuber crop to get two crops at a time – one above and one below the ground. The stick of the okra, that is, the stem, can be used in the plastic industry, and can also be used in the paper industry to produce ordinary quality paper. It can also be used as a fuel. Match sticks cannot be made from the wood of okra because the wood is too weak. Okra takes only forty days to grow and it consumes little irrigation water.

Better techniques to increase production should also be developed. For example, in the case of pulses, the leaves and stems of the plants may be plucked often and used as vegetables. This induces more shoots to grow and increases production, but it should be stopped one month before flowering is to occur. Orange tomato, apple tomato and grape tomato were developed in India by Satya Banerjee.

Crops requiring shade include such plants as ginger, turmeric, betel leaf, sweet potato, sweet juice potato and elephantum potato. Plants useful in making scents include the rai bel, matia bel and mogra bel varieties of bel phul [Jasminum sambac Ait.], jui phul [Jasminum sambae], chameli [Jasminum grandiflorum Linn.], bukul [Minisapes elangi], kamini [Murraya paniculata Linn. Jack.], lavender and oleander fragrances.

Paper can be made from bamboo, bamboo leaves, safia grass, soft wood, sugar cane waste and maize waste. Good paper can be manufactured from hoop pine [Araucaria cunninghamii D. Don.].

All sweet seeds should be sown after proper sprouting, otherwise ants will eat them up. Radish seeds should always be brought from at least three miles away from the field where they are to be grown, otherwise they will be prone to disease. To produce seeds for sunflowers, varieties which produce more seeds should be used; for ginger, varieties which have sprouts; for peanuts, the Gujarat variety, the Andhra Pradesh variety or the Tamil Nadu variety; and for paddy, the late boro variety.

There should be a seed production centre at Ánanda Nagar or Ánanda Shiila where the climate is very cold. In the plains of India, good seeds cannot be produced. The best places for producing sugar beet seeds are the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and the Kashmir Valley. We should try to produce seeds at Ánanda Nagar or at Calcutta in a green house. Ánanda Nagar jágrti is the highest point in central Ánanda Nagar, so the seeds of broccoli, sugar beet and cabbage should be grown there.

Herbs and medicinal plants should be given special importance. Some plants are very useful in helping cure mental disorders. For example, brahmi sag [Herpestis monniera H. B. & K.] increases memory power and is good for the brain. Bottle gourd (lau) [Lagenaria vulgaris Seringe] is good for the mentally disturbed. Bhringaraj [Wedelia calendulacea Less.] oil can be used to treat the insane. Tulsi nishanda or oil extracted from basil seeds can be used to treat madness. Other plants are useful in treating physical disorders. For example, kalmegh [Andrographis paniculata Nees.] or cirota, which is dried kalmegh, prevents malaria. Cinchona is a source of quinine. Phaniphal [Trapa bispinosa Roxb.] is good for stomach and intestinal disorders.

There are six categories of hills – small mounds, demi-hillocks, small hillocks, hillocks, hills and mountains. The land near sources of water such as wells and barrages should be utilized by growing varieties of sag or green leafy vegetables, mint (pudina) and Indian pennywort (thankuni) [Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn.].

Creepers to be grown in protected areas include the gach pán variety of betel leaf and long pepper (pepul) [Piper longum Linn.] climbing on alternate red oaks; black pepper (golmarich) [Piper nigrum Linn.] climbing on silver oaks and green oaks; choi [Piper chaba Hunter.] climbing on coconut plants; and other creeping or climbing medicinal plants such as harjura [Cissus quadrangularis Linn.] and iishanmula [Aristolochia indica Linn.] growing on different palms. Such climbers should not be grown on roadside palms. They should be grown only in protected areas.

The Bengali months are solar months, and they take into account the seasons. The Hindi months are lunar months so cultivation cannot be done according to the Hindi calendar.

The Gregorian calendar is also a solar calendar, but it is not adjusted. For example, when the arc is starting it is the fourteenth of April, which is the middle of the month, but if it were properly adjusted it would be in the beginning of the month.

Generally the solar year is 365 days and the lunar year is 355 days. Therefore, every three years the lunar year advances by one month.

The Bengali calendar is followed in West Bengal, Bangladesh, Tripura, Assam, Orissa, the Bengali speaking areas of Bihar, and Chotanagpur. It is also followed for cultivation in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Jammu, Kashmir, the Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Tibet, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan.

When both the sun and the moon are in Pisces, and clouds form in the sky and it rains, this is called hathiya in Bihar. This combination is considered excellent for agriculture because the yield of the crops will increase tremendously.

Some plants are sun affected and others are moon affected. Basil is moon affected. In moon affected herbs the effect increases on the full moon. Sun affected and moon affected plants should be grown in separate areas.

Detailed research needs to be done to make all calendars more accurate. This will make farming more scientific and increase productivity.

All integrated farming projects and master units should endeavour to include some special features such as a wheat grinding machine to produce flour, a bakery to produce bread, a cheap seed distribution centre (sulabha biija vitarańa kendra), a free plant distribution centre, sericulture, a bio-gas plant to utilize the waste of dairy cows, solar energy, apiculture and a school and children’s home.

A cheap seed distribution centre should collect good quality seeds and sell them at cheap rates. Seeds may be purchased from local farmers at the end of each harvest, or purchased at cheap rates in the market, or cultivated, but the centre should provide good quality seeds at cheap rates to the local people.

A free plant distribution centre should grow plants from seeds and seedlings for free distribution to local people. The following system should be used to prepare plants for distribution. The seedlings should be grown until they are one and a half feet tall. The plants should then be uprooted and their roots soaked in water for half an hour. Next, the main root of each plant should be cut off one inch below the base of the plant, and the remaining roots should again be soaked in water for ten minutes. The plants should then be planted in a field or packed for distribution. Plants which are prepared in this way will produce large, sweet fruits. The fruits will be better than those produced from seedlings, but not as good as those produced from grafted plants.

(1) Master units are model rural multi-purpose development centres. The primary requisites of an ideal master unit correspond to the provision of the minimum requirements of food, clothing, housing, education and medical treatment in PROUT. They will expand all possible services, particularly in the fields of education, culture, economics and spiritual upliftment. –Eds.

Cooperative Production – Excerpt A

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 14 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

from Shabda Cayaniká Part 17

Published in Prout in a Nutshell Part 14 as first section of "Systems of Production".

Collective production is a system in which something is produced collectively. In an agricultural society as well as in society at large there are some commodities which are produced collectively. For example, sugar cane farmers in India collectively produce raw sugar from sugar cane grown in their individual fields. They collectively purchase a large vat in which they boil the juice of the sugar cane for the preparation of raw sugar.

The commune system is also a kind of collective production in that people produce something in a collective manner. Cooperative industrial and agricultural production belongs to the same category. Agricultural production by private enterprise is not collective production, neither is agricultural production by the sharecropping system.

Of the different systems of production – the cooperative system, private enterprise, the sharecropping system and the commune system – the last one is the worst. The sharecropping system is slightly better than the commune system, and better still is private enterprise, but the best system is the cooperative system of production.

In the commune system individual ownership is denied. In some countries the right of individual ownership may be accepted in principle but not in practice. In such places there is no scope for workers to get either the inspiration or the incentive to fully utilize their skills in either agriculture or industry. There is no opportunity for them to enhance their working capacity. They are like oxen moving around an oil grinding mill with their eyes blindfolded. The oxen may move one hundred miles a day but they make no forward progress. Similarly, the workers in the commune system are confined within the four walls of intellectual staticity. They have no opportunity to develop subtle thoughts, so their lives can never be elevated to higher strata. People living in the commune system are like animals trapped within the vortex of staticity till the last breath of their lives. They have no psychological or human relation with their work. This is the nature of the commune system. The whole system runs counter to human psychology, and consequently production never increases.

Those countries which have adopted the commune system directly or indirectly have utterly failed in agricultural production. This is a most unfortunate fact. Capitalist countries, where agricultural production takes place on the basis of individual ownership, supply food grains to communist countries. Communist countries are compelled to purchase their minimum requirements from countries under private enterprise. The poor masses live a miserable existence of hunger and deprivation, and their lives are nothing but a bad dream. Though the capitalist system is bad, even then the commune system surrenders to it. What a pitiful situation this is. Until communist countries reject the commune system they will not be able to solve their food problems, and they will continue to move from country to country with their begging bowls outstretched.

The sharecropping system is better than the commune system because people get more incentive and freedom. In this system the psychology of “If I can produce more I can earn more” dominates. But this system also suffers from some major defects. Suppose a sharecropper manages to get seven acres of land from three different landowners and thus arranges twenty-one acres of land. He may not cultivate the total acreage due to idleness, want of sufficient labourers or financial constraints. He may think that limited cultivation will provide enough food to meet the demands of his family for a whole year, so he does not bother cultivating the remainder of the land. As a result the owner of the land uncultivated by the sharecropper will be deprived of his share.

The second negative aspect of the sharecropping system is that sharecroppers often hold more land than an individual landowner. As a result some sharecroppers have a higher standard of living than landowners. This kind of sharecropper cannot claim that he works in the fields with his own physical labour. In a round about way such a system encourages capitalism in agriculture.

The third defect of this system lies in the fact that sharecroppers employ hired labourers to work the land, and remain idle themselves.

The fourth defect is that landowners holding very small amounts of land cannot cultivate their land independently because their capacity is limited. Only a sharecropper can cultivate such small plots. Consequently, a new feudalism is created out of the sharecropping system, is this not so?

Another serious defect of the sharecropping system is that in India the owner of a few acres of land is brought under the land ceiling acts whereas the sharecropper, even though he may cultivate a much larger area of land, does not come within the scope of the land ceiling laws at all. He can openly challenge these laws and say that as he is not the actual owner of the land, why should he be served a land ceiling order. Thus, a section of the landholding capitalists who are big sharecroppers escape through the holes in the nylon dragnet of the law.

Individual agricultural production and the sharecropping system both suffer from another major problem. If farmers in these two systems do not have enough capital but have a large area of land, they cannot adopt modern agricultural methods for production. Tractors and power tillers remain beyond their means. By using age-old ploughing techniques these farmers can only cultivate the surface of the land, and this does not help increase its productivity. They cannot utilize better quality fertilizers, high yielding seeds and proper irrigation systems.

There are more incentives for farmers in individual agricultural production than in sharecropping, but in private enterprise there are still drawbacks which prevent the adoption of a modern and progressive system of agriculture. In this system there is not much possibility of increasing agricultural production because up to one hundred percent of infertile land lies unutilized. Often farmers do not have the capacity to utilize the benefits of tractors, power tillers, high yielding seeds and proper irrigation systems due to their lack of finance. Although private enterprise is better than the sharecropping and commune systems, ultimately the state and society cannot be benefited. If an individual cultivator has a large amount of land in his possession (in capitalist countries farmers can hold unlimited amounts of land) he may be able to use high yielding seeds and proper irrigation systems, but the government will have to avoid introducing a land ceiling. However, this is not desirable because it will lead to over accumulation.

In the modern world the cooperative system is the best system of agricultural and industrial production. In the cooperative system members can pressurize the government because of their collective strength and gain financial help and various facilities to increase production. They can pressurize the government to provide better irrigation facilities and high yielding seeds and even make infertile land productive. Land with little fertility can be transformed into fertile farm land with proper care. This will increase total agricultural production and also help a country become self-sufficient in food production and cash crops, freeing it from food shortages.

In addition, plots of land on the same level and of the same fertility can be turned into larger single plots by removing all dividing boundaries. However, if the land is undulating and varies in fertility, the division of land may be maintained, otherwise land cannot be properly irrigated.

I have already said that in the sharecropping system one gets a better output than in the commune system, but in such a system it is not possible to adopt progressive methods of agricultural production. Eventually the level of production will come down to the level of the commune system.

Among all the attachments human beings suffer from, attachment to land is one of the strongest. Out of sympathy farmers can donate large amounts of produce without hesitation, but they will feel tremendous pain if they are asked to donate a few square metres of land. If they have to donate land to somebody, farmers feel that their ribs will break because of the pain in their hearts. Those who donate land do so for three reasons – to save the major part of their land, for a high humanitarian cause or out of spiritual inspiration.

Cooperative Production – Excerpt B

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 14 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

Published in Prout in a Nutshell Part 14 as second section of "Systems of Production".

Sharecroppers do not own land, but cultivate other people’s land for a share of the produce. Land usually is given to sharecroppers because it is too small for the landowner to make sufficient income from it. A sharecropper may arrange several hundred acres of land from different landowners. This system was first introduced seven hundred years ago. Sharecroppers are called bargadar or bhagcáśi in Bengali.

The cooperative system is far better than the sharecropping system. It can readily overcome the defects of the sharecropping system by properly utilizing agricultural land, increasing agricultural production and using modern technology. Cooperative members should elect a board of directors which will be able to supervise every aspect of production, thus increasing the out-turn. The maxim of agricultural cooperatives should be: “More production, more dividends and more bonuses.” Labourers will earn wages and bonuses. Wages will be earned according to the amount of labour done by the labourer, while bonuses should be paid on the basis of the net per annum profit of the cooperative according to the amount of a labourer’s net wage.

The sharecropping system may be replaced by different systems – at one pole is the commune system and at the other pole is the cooperative system. In the commune system there are no incentives at all. This system is worse than the sharecropping system. Lack of incentives is the reason why the state run communes have failed in China and the Soviet Union. Even today these countries have to import food grains from capitalist countries like Canada, the USA and Australia. But in the cooperative system there are incentives and a feeling of oneness with the job. Through their own initiative, cooperatives can take large loans from a bank or the government to purchase modern equipment and construct dams, barrages and shift or lift irrigation facilities to increase production. This never happens in the commune system. Thus, the cooperative system is the best system while the commune system is the worst. The commune system is detrimental to anything and everything that is human.

Economic planning should be done on the basis of each block. The present boundaries of blocks should be reorganized or readjusted according to the fertility of the land and other factors such as topography and the similarities of the region. For example, if most of the agricultural land in one block is fertile and the land in the adjacent block is mostly infertile, then the boundaries of these two blocks should be adjusted so that all the infertile land comes within one block. Planning can then be done for that block on the basis of the infertility of the land. A block-level programme can be easily taken to increase the productivity of the land, or to establish suitable agro-industries or agrico-industries for economic development.

In certain parts of India farmers do not cultivate fodder or keep land for rearing cattle, and this adversely affects the health of the cattle and decreases milk production. In the cooperative system a portion of the land may be kept for this purpose. Napier grass, which is fast growing, millet, jawar and non-poisonous khesári pulse can be grown for the cattle.

The varieties of khesári that are presently cultivated in India are very nutritious but contain poisonous alkaloids which cause paralysis in the lower limbs of both cattle and human beings. These poisonous alkaloids reside between the skin and the outer portion of the pulse. They can be easily eliminated if the pulse is soaked in water overnight and the following morning the outer skin is removed by rubbing the pulses together. The inner portion of the pulse can be safely eaten by both cattle and human beings.

Feudalism and the Zamindary System

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 15 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Those of you who have studied land revenue systems know that during the Mughal, Pathan, Buddhist and pre-Buddhist Ages in India, land revenue was paid to the king in the form of gold bullion. Ten or twenty villages used to combine together to form a revenue village (mouza), and one person from among the villagers was authorized to collect revenue. These tax collectors were not paid by the government, but were given land to cultivate in order to earn their livelihood. They acted as intermediaries between the people and the king in the agricultural sector and gradually became powerful landlords. Such intermediaries have been in existence since ancient times, and included zamindars, pattanidars, darpattanidars, sepattanidars, jotdars, vargadars and adhikaris. However, PROUT does not support these kinds of intermediaries.

In olden times there used to be a few powerful kings, and under each of these kings there were many smaller kings. Both types of kings used to maintain armies and militia, although intermediaries were not authorized to maintain a militia. Today the Assam Rifles and the Rajput Regiment are part of the military, hence they are not a militia force. Militia means váhini or one’s own military force; that is, it is not dependent on others. To command a militia one should have zeal and authority. One who has these qualities is called “militant”. If the smaller kings accepted the powerful kings in every respect – including tax payments – we say that they accepted the supremacy of the dominant kings. However, there is a difference between the terms “suzerainty” and “supremacy”. “Suzerainty” applies when the smaller kings accepted the authority of the powerful kings but did not pay them taxes. Today Australia accepts the suzerainty of the English monarchy, but it does not accept English supremacy because it does not pay taxes to the British government.

In those days there were three means of trade – poor people used to barter among themselves; people with some money would purchase commodities with silver coins; and rich people would buy commodities with gold coins. Tax collectors would collect taxes in any of these three forms but they had to pay the king in gold bullion.

Although this tax system had been in vogue for a long time, it was only in the reign of Akbar that it was given some concrete shape. Akbar decreed that the land given to tax collectors should be for a period of five to ten years. The rules and regulations concerning land were known as the “Patta Kabuliyat” system. This system was made effective by Akbar’s prime minister, Todarmal. The land tax system was also known as the zamindary or landlord system.

Later Lord Cornwallis decided that land should be given to tax collectors permanently. He stipulated that the ownership of this land and the position of a tax collector should be hereditary. This system was adopted to discourage tax collectors from collecting taxes then leaving an area.

Akbar also introduced another type of tax collection system called the jágirdari system. In both the zamindary and jágirdari tax collection systems, taxes were paid to the king. The difference between these systems was that in the zamindary system if the zamindar failed to pay the required tax he was sent to jail, and he was only released when the tax was paid. In the jágirdari system, if the tax collector failed to pay the required tax his land was confiscated. Throughout India either the zamindary or jágirdari system was in vogue, although during the British period the zamindars were the principal revenue collectors.

Zamindars were only tax collectors and did not have any political power. A fixed amount of whatever taxes they collected went to the government treasury, hence zamindars enjoyed life as social parasites. This system did not involve any government expenditure – it was a simple fiscal system to collect money for the government.

During the British period two officers used to be appointed by the government to the department of agriculture to look after land taxes and agriculture. One was a civilian who supervised official tax duties. He was a secretary and his office was known as the secretariat. The other was a technical person proficient in agriculture. He was a director and his office was known as the directorate. The secretary was a member of the Indian Civil Service.

Within the revenue department there was a revenue board chaired by a member of the Indian Civil Service. This post was so important that if the viceroy was sick the chairman of the revenue board would officiate on his behalf. This shows the significance of the revenue department at that time. Today the revenue department is a burden to the government and its expenditure is more than its income.

In Czarist Russia there was also a land tax system, and the position of the tax collectors was hereditary as in India. The system in Russia was a feudal system as tax collectors also had political power. In India there was no feudal system because zamindars did not have any political power. If zamindars committed any crime they would be tried in a court of law like any ordinary person. As zamindars were not feudal chiefs and did not have political power they could not snatch the land of others.

England also had a feudal system in which dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts and barons were the feudal chiefs. They had some political power and were represented in the House of Lords. Members of the House of Commons were elected from among the common people. Later a system was introduced in which the House of Lords could reject legislation from the House of Commons, but if the House of Commons sent the same bill to the House of Lords a second time, then the House of Lords had to pass it and the king or queen had to sign it. This is an example of how the feudal system functioned. In England it was a rule that only the eldest son of a lord would be appointed to the House of Lords, provided he did not marry a divorcee, but in France all the sons of an aristocrat became lords. As there were numerous lords they lost their importance.

The zamindary system had some benefits. Good zamindars used to look after poor people, and if they could not pay their taxes the zamindars would pay them. Many zamindars had their own forest land, known as private forests, while government forests were known as reserve forests. Private forests were usually well looked after by the zamindars, thus ecological balance was maintained. There were few floods and landslides, little soil erosion and the land retained its fertility. Rivers rarely dried up in the summer. After the zamindary system was abolished many private forests were cut down, destroying the ecological balance.

However, the zamindary system also had some drawbacks. Peasants had no rights to the land – they were simply tillers. Zamindars used to keep enormous areas of land as personal property. Also, there was a huge margin between the amount of revenue collected by the zamindars and that paid to the government.

Due to constant criticism the zamindary system was abolished. If something is repeated over and over again people start to think that it contains some truth, and eventually their minds will be influenced. This happened with the zamindary system. After the zamindary system was abolished the government had to pay wages to tax collectors and maintain a tax collection system, and the expenditure for this came from the revenue department. The abolition of the zamindary system did not increase the revenue of the government. If the government had restricted the capital of the capitalists and put a ceiling on bank balances and the hoarding of gold bullion instead, it would have ensured the welfare of society. Also, it should have curtailed some powers of the zamindars and safeguarded the interests of the peasants. Rather than do this the common people were taught through constant booming that the land belongs to those who plough the soil. If we follow the same logic it can be said that the head belongs to those who shave the face!

Water Conservation

Published in:
Ideal Farming Part 2
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 17 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

At the beginning of this earth, there was absolute silence – there were no living beings or even plants. This condition continued for hundreds of millions of years, until the earth was properly formed. Then a phase came when rain and storms started, and by a gradual process, life emerged. As a result of the rain, carbon atoms got infused with vital energy (práńa shakti). Carbon atoms along with protoplasmic clash and cohesion formed this vital energy.

Water was an essential factor in the evolution of the planet, and now it is most essential for the survival of human beings, animals, plants and the planet as a whole. If it does not rain anywhere on earth for only one year, all life on the planet will be destroyed. This is because all creatures – from the smallest organisms to the largest animals – need water. If there is no water, first the small creatures will die, then the ecological balance of the planet will be lost. Next, human beings will also die, and soon the earth will become a barren wasteland.

In the near future there will be a severe crisis in many parts of the world. Many large rivers like the Ganga, the Jamuna and the Thames are already very polluted. People cannot drink this water, and if they even wash their hands in it they can become infected. The only solution is to rely on rainwater. We must collect the rainwater, develop the science of making artificial rain through helium or any other process, and bring the clouds which rain over the ocean onto the land. Constructing more deep tube wells is not the answer. Rather, we must catch the rainwater where it falls. Many ponds, canals, dams, lakes and reservoirs should be immediately constructed to catch the rainwater and store it for drinking water. This is the only way out of the water crisis that will confront humanity in the very near future.

In the physical sphere there are two types of calamities – natural calamities and those caused by human beings. Today most calamities are caused by human beings, but sometimes natural calamities like typhoons, floods, droughts, earthquakes, etc., also occur. Although different types of calamities may confront humanity, doomsday will never happen. The very idea of doomsday is based on dogma.

The calamities caused by human beings are mainly of two types. First, many calamities are caused by the bifurcation and trifurcation of society. The bifurcation of society is exemplified by the conflict between the Israelis and the Palestinians and the recent war between North and South Vietnam. The division of India into India, Pakistan and Bangladesh is an example of the trifurcation of society.

Calamities are also caused by the destruction of the environment and the indiscriminate exploitation of subterranean resources such as coal, oil and water. One of the greatest causes of environmental destruction is deforestation. Due to deforestation, the rain clouds coming from the Bay of Bengal travel all the way across India and rain on the Arabian Sea. That is, clouds which once rained on Magadh now rain on the Arabian Sea. Consequently, the water level in the Arabian Sea is gradually rising and the Bay of Bengal is becoming more salty. The result is that the water level around the coast of India is rising, the land area of the Indian subcontinent is decreasing and soil erosion is increasing. Approximately two-thirds of the surface of the globe is water and one-third is land, but due to deforestation the water portion is increasing and the land portion is decreasing.

Another cause of environmental destruction is the exploitation of subterranean resources. Deep cavities have been formed in the earth after extracting subterranean resources, and these cavities should be properly filled. In some countries it is the practice to use sand to fill the cavities created by mining underground coal. If these cavities are left unfilled, the surrounding regions are more likely to experience earthquakes than other areas. Moreover, the unfilled cavities can severely weaken the surface structure of the earth, causing whole regions to collapse.

In some Arab countries, huge amounts of money have been made by extracting oil from under the ground. Several years ago the leaders of these countries realized that the supply of oil would not last forever, so they started to think about the future of their countries after the supply of oil was exhausted. They became concerned that the level of the water-table was falling and the sizes of the deserts were increasing. To solve this problem, they decided to import soil and sweet water to create dense forests. Now the trees that they planted are eight to ten years old, and last year it was reported that they experienced floods for the first time. Many of the local people had never seen floods before, and young children even cried in alarm at the sight of the rain!

The exploitation of subterranean water reserves is contributing to desertification in many parts of the world, and as the subterranean water level recedes, the soil near the surface dries out and plants wither and die. This has already happened in many parts of Rajasthan. Afforestation is the only solution to desertification. Human beings have suffered from water scarcity and drought in the past, and this problem will continue unless proper care is taken in the future. If deforestation and the indiscriminate exploitation of subterranean water reserves continue, it is likely that many parts of the world will face severe water shortages from 1993 to at least the year 2000. The only way to avoid such a catastrophe is to immediately implement a decentralized approach to water conservation.

Why do droughts occur? What are the most important causes of drought? There are three main causes. The first is the wanton destruction of plants or indiscriminate deforestation, the second is low pressure systems over oceans and big seas, and the third is sudden changes in the angular movement of the sun and other celestial bodies like comets, nebulae and galaxies.

Deforestation causes drought because it prevents the plants from nourishing the earth. The fibrous roots of plants absorb and hold considerable amounts of water which is slowly released into the soil. In the paddy fields of Bengal, for example, during the dry season water will trickle down the channels beside the fields. Where does the water come from? It is released from the roots of the standing crops. But when the paddy and the associate crops are harvested, the supply of water dries up. Deforestation is caused by human beings, and it is within their power to solve this problem through their own efforts.

The second and third causes are presently beyond human control. In the future, with the development of the meteorological and marine sciences, human beings will be able to partially influence and overcome the second cause, but not fully. The third cause can only be controlled by Supreme Consciousness. However, if human beings follow the path of positive microvita and have the grace of Supreme Consciousness, they can also control the third cause.

How do the sudden changes in the angular movement of celestial bodies cause drought? The paths of some comets are predetermined and astronomers can ascertain their arrival dates and possible effects on the earth, but there are other comets that appear suddenly without warning. When there is the sudden appearance of powerful celestial bodies or a sudden change in their angle of rotation, their gravitational pull may disturb the seasons and the natural order of creation. For example, as a result of the strong gravitational pull of a powerful comet or meteor, clouds may not be formed. This phenomenon is called bakudashá in Sanskrit.

Certain deviations of celestial bodies like meteors, comets and satellites take place due to the concentration of a huge number of positive and negative microvita. Movement in universal space is subject to the movement of positive and negative microvita, and this also affects life on earth.

The angularity of the movement of celestial bodies also affects the minds of human beings. Suppose you are outside enjoying a cool breeze on a calm full moon night. A soothing, painless feeling will arise in your mind. But if the feeling continues, the nerve cells in your body may become dull, and if the experience of dullness goes beyond a certain limit, your thinking power may be impaired, even causing some psychic ailment. This occurs because the ecological balance within the human structure is lost.

Say a certain incident took place in your life at the age of eight. Now we know that there is nothing identical in this universe, only similarities. If similar circumstances reoccur after a gap of say eight years, a similar incident could take place when you are sixteen. You have to ensure that people are not put into an environment which is similar to one that caused them pain and suffering in the past, as this may adversely affect their progress in the spiritual sphere. This also applies to the physical and psychic spheres.

Human movement is movement towards ecological equipoise – towards the supreme synthesis. In the inner world, balance must be maintained as this leads to spiritual progress. Ecological order is not only for the earth but for the entire universe, and it must be maintained both within and without. The angular displacement of any celestial body may affect the human mind as well as the physical universe, so balance must be maintained between the internal and external spheres. In all aspects of human life this subtle balance must be maintained. This is ecological balance.

I have already said that constructing more deep tube wells is not the solution to the water crisis. What are the drawbacks of well irrigation? Well irrigation causes the level of the water-table to drop, while the continuous use of well irrigation dries up the subterranean flow of water. Initially the effects of continuous well irrigation may not be easy to perceive, but eventually a fertile region will be transformed into a desert. In fact, if the subterranean water level stays at above twenty to twenty-five feet, the surface vegetation will not be affected, but if it drops below fifty feet, the surface of the earth will become a barren wasteland.

1) Neighbouring shallow wells dry up creating the problem of lack of drinking water.

2) Trees, orchards and large plants do not get sufficient subterranean water so they wither and die. Green countryside will become a desert after thirty to forty-five years of intensive well irrigation.

3) In some deep tube wells enemy elements – that is, elements which are harmful to the soil such as heavy minerals and mineral salts – get mixed with the water, causing problems such as salinity. As a result, the land eventually becomes infertile and unfit for cultivation. When the flow of well water stops, irrigation tanks supplied by these wells also dry up.

Well irrigation should be used only as a temporary measure because of the devastating effects it can have on the surrounding environment. Alternative methods of irrigation include river irrigation, irrigation from reservoirs, dams and small ponds, shift irrigation and lift irrigation. Irrigation water is like the apex of a spinning top. Without it, agriculture is not possible.

The best method of irrigation is the conservation of surface water through a system of ponds, canals, dams, lakes and reservoirs.

Take the example of Ráŕh and Orissa. The potentialities of this region have not yet been fully developed and utilized. The major portion of the wealth is subterranean, and these treasures should be properly harnessed, but practically nothing has been done in this respect. The surface potentialities should also be properly developed, but these too have been neglected.

How should the surface water potentiality in this region be utilized? The rainfall in this area is very meagre – rain only falls part of the year, and the rest of the year it is dry. Well irrigation is underdeveloped, and there is hardly any lift or shift irrigation. Sixty-five percent of the land is rocky and sandy, and traditionally only coarse grain is grown there. So in Ráŕh we have to do two things – construct many new small-scale ponds, dams and lakes, and undertake large-scale afforestation on the banks of all water systems.

Ráŕh has undulating land, so large-scale reservoirs cannot be easily constructed, but many small lakes and ponds can be built. Large, deep reservoirs will not be as beneficial as small-scale ponds and should not be encouraged. Moreover, large reservoirs rely on lift and shift irrigation to supply water to a system of canals. In such a system the water pressure will fall because as the water travels along the canals leading from the reservoirs to the fields, the canals will be obstructed by the hilly terrain. So, if there is a big investment in reservoirs, the money will be wasted. Instead, many small ponds and dams can be constructed with the same investment. If many small-scale dams are constructed at a cost of about one hundred thousand rupees each, this investment will give a return of hundreds of millions of rupees.

In a system of small-scale ponds and dams, any surplus water in the canals leading to the fields can be rechannelled back to a main water source to avoid wastage. Water will only be carried a little distance in a small-scale canal system, so most of the time the surrounding fields will be properly irrigated. Sometimes however, as in the rainy season, surplus water will be created which should be rechannelled back to the water source or used further downstream. Such a system will also help check flooding in the rainy season and avoid damage to the small-scale dams constructed along the rivers. Farmers should take care that they do not use excessive non-organic fertilizers, because the chemicals will pollute the water system and have a harmful effect on humans, animals, fish, plants and the environment. Organic fertilizers are preferable to non-organic fertilizers.

What is the method to irrigate a rain-shadow region? When the rain clouds move from the sea and strike high mountains on the land there is rain. The part of the mountain range which faces the sea gets ample rain, whereas the region on the other side of the range facing inland gets little rain. The region which gets ample rain is the rain-front area, while the region which gets little rain is the rain-shadow area. The entire Telengana region is a rain-shadow area, and so is the Pune region of Maharashtra.

How can the Pune region be irrigated? There are two main methods. One is to pump water up the coastal side of the mountain range so that it can run down the inland rivers, and the other is to dig a tunnel through the mountains from the rain-front area to the rain-shadow area. The second method of irrigation is far cheaper. A well constructed tunnel should last about 150 years.

There are three types of rivers – ice fed, rain fed and subterranean fed. Ice fed rivers cause flooding when there is an increase in the temperature, whereas rain fed and subterranean fed rivers only cause seasonal flooding when there is heavy rain. However, an increase in the temperature can dry them up.

Are the rivers in Ráŕh perennial or seasonal? Are they ice fed or rain fed, or do they get water from subterranean sources due to the high level of the artesian water? Many rain fed rivers are only supplied with water in the rainy season and not in other seasons. The rivers in central Ráŕh are rain fed but they are also supplied with artesian water. We should not depend only on rain fed rivers, because while they may accumulate water in the rainy season, in other seasons they may dry up. And even if rain fed rivers are also fed by subterranean sources which supply water throughout the year, there should still be every effort to conserve the surface water.

There are four categories of rivers – small rivulets, rivulets, rivers and big rivers.

Rivers also have three stages – the hill, plain and delta stages. Some rivers, however, do not have their delta stage in the ocean because they expire before reaching the sea. Take the example of the topography of Mithila and Magadh. In Mithila in the rainy season, sufficient water passes through rivers such as the Bagmati, Gandak and Koshi. The hill stage of these rivers is in Nepal, the plain stage is in Mithila, and the delta stage is in Bengal. The plains of Mithila contain very soft soil, which is why these rivers always change their course. No rivers have their delta stage in Mithila. To tame these rivers, the cooperation of Nepal and Bengal is required.

In Magadh, unlike Mithila, the hill and delta stages of the rivers are in Magadh, except for the Suvarnareka, which flows just on the border line between southern Magadh and northern Chattisgarh. The Koel River should be tamed through cooperation between Magadh and Kaoshal. In fact, Magadh and Kaoshal share many common problems.

In controlling or taming rivers, powerful boards of experts should be established which contain representatives of all three stages. This will ensure the successful implementation of river projects. Under international law no country should be allowed to use water according to its own wish. The hill stage must consult with the plain stage and the plain stage must consult with the delta stage. Nepal, for example, must consult with the plain and delta stages of its rivers which flow through India. If there is want of cooperation among the three, the river water coming from the hills or blocked at the delta may submerge a large area of plain land. Magadh is in a relatively convenient position as both the hill and plain stages of its rivers are in Magadh.

The banks of all water systems should be covered by dense forests. The science behind this is that the roots of the trees retain water. When the water-table subsides, the roots of the trees slowly release water. Hence, a pond surrounded by trees will never run dry. The foliage of the trees also minimizes evaporation. Besides this, the leaves of the trees have very small pores which attract clouds, so the trees help to increase the rainfall. Only one hundred years ago there were large rain forests in Ráŕh, and at that time in the Manbhum district the rainfall was seventy to eighty inches per year. Now it is hardly forty to forty-five inches.

A scientific programme of afforestation should include two aspects. In the first phase fast growing trees should be planted. Trees which grow to their full height in six months to two years and provide dense green cover should be selected. In the second phase, trees which take longer to grow but also provide dense green cover should be planted. This approach will quickly restore the ecological balance of a region.

Afforestation must be carried out both intensively and extensively. The best approach is to plant both fast growing and slow growing trees together. Planting only slow growing trees is uneconomic because we will have to wait thirty, fifty, seventy or one hundred years to get the desired result. And planting only fast growing trees will not provide any long term benefits. So both intensive and extensive afforestation should be done immediately. After reaching maturity, the trees can be selectively cut and sold.

Afforestation should be carried out on the banks of ponds, canals, dams, lakes, rivers and reservoirs. For example, babula [Acasia arabica Willd.] or kheyer [Acasia catechu Willd.] should be planted. In between these trees we can plant bukphul [Sesbania grandiflora Pers.], and in between these, Indian rosewood. The reason for this is that bukphul grows very fast and within five years it will be a tall tree, but babula takes a little longer to grow. Indian rosewood grows very slowly but it lives a long time. Thus, first bukphul will grow fast and attract rain which will help the other trees to grow. When it has fully matured after five or seven years it can be cut, and by this stage we will have a dense forest of Indian rosewood trees.

These trees are very useful in other respects also. For example, bukphul leaves increase the milk supply in cows, while thread can be produced from the leaves and stem. Indian rosewood trees increase the rainfall and hold water in their roots. The flowers provide a plentiful supply of honey, the leaves can be used to make plates, the sap is used to produce gum for the incense industry, and the tree may be used in sericulture to produce tasar silk. The seeds are also edible and are taken by poor people, while the honey has medicinal use and economic value, so it can earn foreign exchange as an export commodity. Piyasal [Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.] can also be planted in between Indian rosewood trees if need be. In this way, step by step, we have to proceed.

Scientific crop management is also an essential aspect of water conservation. For example, a field of barley requires less water to grow than a field of vegetables. If there are two fields side by side, one of barley and the other of vegetables, the vegetable crop will consume only seventy-five percent of the water normally used to irrigate it. If the other twenty-five percent is allowed to run off to the barley crop, that water will be sufficient to irrigate the barley. The barley crop will not require any special irrigation facilities.

Fruit trees can store a large amount of water in their roots, so they should be planted along river banks and near paddy fields to help conserve water. After the paddy harvest at Ánanda Nagar, for example, the water flows into the two rivulets – the Alkananda and the Paragati – leaving the fields dry. After a short time the rivulets also dry up as their supply of seepage water from the fields stops. To solve this problem, fruit trees should be planted beside the rivulets. The water stored in the roots of the fruit trees will keep the soil moist and fertile. Care should be taken so that the branches of the fruit trees do not block the sunlight from the crops. If this system is followed, when the paddy is cut and the fields are drained of water, the rivulets will remain flowing. If fruit trees are planted along the banks of a river, it will always retain water.

Foolish human beings, however, have cut down all the trees along the river banks, so now many rivers have dried up. Who would believe that 150 years ago large boats used to travel along the Mayuraksi Rriver in Bengal? Today it is a small river, and in the rainy season small boats only ply along it. The forests around the river have all gone. The forest trees contain water in their root systems and release it in a controlled way which enables the rivers to flow regularly. Now you understand the utility of the forests. Adjacent to the Mayuraksi River is the Katasu village where I once saw a fossilized mast of a ship. This proves that at one time large ships used to travel along the river. I have also seen the same thing along the Damodar River. Due to deforestation, these rivers are now drying up, and consequently there is less rainfall.

The inner spirit of our water conservation programme is that the amount of existing surface water should be immediately doubled. But it is preferable if it is increased tenfold. This can best be done by a decentralized approach to water management which increases the depth, the area, or both, of water storage systems. The first step is to increase the depth of those ponds, tanks, dams, lakes, rivers and reservoirs which are already being used for storing water. The second step is to increase the area of these storage facilities, while the third step is to increase the plantations around them. How can these plantations be increased by a factor of ten? By increasing the number of rows of plants around each water storage system five times, and by reducing the distance between each plant by half. In addition to this, many new small-scale ponds, tanks, dams, lakes and reservoirs should also be constructed. As a general rule, surface water should always be utilized in preference to subterranean water.

You must prepare yourselves. The sphere of knowledge, the span of knowledge and the expansion of knowledge starts with the self. Humanity is waiting for you. You know what you are and what the world expects from you. You have to solve all the problems in the world today. You should prepare detailed plans and programmes and act accordingly. You must be the vanguard.

Developmental Planning

Published in:
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

from "Some Aspects of Socio-Economic Planning"
Prout in a Nutshell Part 15

According to PROUT, human society is one and indivisible. Human society is like a garland which is made of different types of flowers, linked by one common thread. The overall beauty of the garland is dependent upon the beauty of each flower. Similarly, every facet of society is linked together. To maintain the unity and solidarity of the social structure, all spheres of social life must be strengthened and developed.

To establish a well-built social order in any country, three factors are essential. First, there must be proper ideological inspiration for individual and collective progress. All-round progress and advancement can be achieved when society is based on universal principles which are given practical shape so that they become a fundamental part of the socio-economic structure of society. The second factor is discipline. Some countries of the world are fast losing their power because there is no discipline in individual or collective life. To build a well-knit social order, discipline is an essential prerequisite. Thirdly, there must be economic stability. The economy of a country must be sound.

A sound economy entails proper plans and programmes. As socio-economic factors vary from place to place, socio-economic potentialities also vary. Factors such as the fertility of the land and the availability of labour may be diametrically opposite in different regions, so there should be separate planning for each region. For example, the northeast and southeast districts of Bihar suffer from the problems of surplus and deficit labour respectively, hence it is foolish to prescribe the same planning for both areas. Experiments in centralized planning tried to solve such problems, but they inevitably failed. The only alternative is to adopt decentralized economic planning.

Proutistic economic planning is based on the ideal of the welfare of all. This guiding ideal will illuminate the path of socio-economic liberation for human beings. Capitalist planning is not based on collective welfare but on individual or group interests. A principal characteristic of capitalist exploitation is that capitalists gain control over the raw materials in a region in the pursuit of profit. This should not be allowed to continue. Rather, available resources must be utilized for the socio-economic development of local people.

In Proutistic economic planning, every section of society will come within the scope of planning. Not only will it be possible to fulfil the economic hopes and aspirations of the local people, but individual, group or party interests will get no scope to control the economy. Through this approach, it is possible to effect the all-round growth of individuals and the collectivity. The formation of such a socio-economic environment will not only fulfil the material needs of human beings, but will also provide a firm foundation for their psychic and spiritual elevation.

Those powers which directly relate to economic decentralization should be in the hands of the states or the concerned lower level bodies. If this is not done, it will not be possible for them to materialize the economic programmes that are vested in them by decentralization. So the first step in decentralized planning is to make an economic plan according to the needs of the lowest level.

Economic plans and programmes should never be imposed from the top. On the contrary, there must be adequate scope for them to emerge from the grass roots. Each and every economic plan should be prepared in the concerned local area. For example, the economic planning for Pundibari in the Coochbehar district of Bengal cannot be formulated sitting at Begunbari in Jalpaiguri district. The developmental plan for Pundibari must be prepared in Pundibari itself on the basis of the intelligence, expertise and resources within the locality. While formulating economic plans and programmes, the hopes and aspirations of the local people must be taken into consideration.

Thus, to develop an area economically, planning must start at the grass roots level – the direction of economic development should be from the bottom to the top, not from the top to the bottom. The latter approach is impractical and a utopian myth.

In drafting the economic plan of a particular region, local engineers, economists, scientists, professionals, technicians, farmers, industrial labourers, intellectuals and other specialists should be consulted, but the responsibility for implementing the economic plan should be in the hands of local moralists. They will have to play the leading role. The duty for materializing each and every item of planning should be vested in those established in morality and spirituality.

Proutistic economic planning will reorganize the structure of the population on a scientific basis from the very outset. A floating population will have to either merge its individual socio-economic interests with the interests of the region or return to its own region. Those who share a similar cultural legacy and uniform socio-economic potential will then be well-established in each region. In every region, socio-economic problems can be solved by the maximum utilization and rational distribution of the resources and potentialities in that region.

Until now, no serious effort has been made by the leaders of India, either in the pre-independence period or in the post- independence period, to bring about the economic development of the country. The post-independence period can be divided into three main phases – the Nehru era, the Gandhi era and the Janata government. All these eras came within the jurisdiction of the Vaeshya Era or capitalist rule, and they all had one thing in common – they had a soft state policy towards the capitalists. The Janata government represented a counter movement within the Vaeshya Era. It was neither an intellectual revolution nor an intellectual counter-evolution, but simply a movement of capitalist mentality. It was a reformist intellectual approach motivated by capitalist interests. To strengthen its position, the government tried to give the capitalists better scope to chew the bones and marrow of the shúdras, kśatriyas and vipras. As it was a counter movement, it was short-lived and brought shúdra revolution nearer, hence there was no economic development during that period. Consequently, there is no alternative for Proutists but to form socio-economic units.

Socio-economic units should be formed throughout the world on the basis of the same economic problems, uniform economic potentialities, ethnic similarities, common sentimental legacy and similar geographical features. The whole of India and the entire world can be reorganized into socio-economic units based on these factors. These units should not merely be geographical areas but self-sufficient socio-economic groupifications. The fundamental basis of these groupifications is social, cultural and economic, and not religious or linguistic. Socio-economic units will have to adopt economic decentralization so that the local people will be able to obtain all the requirements necessary for their physical, psychic and spiritual progress. This concept is an important aspect of applied PROUT.

Economic planning will aim to make each socio-economic unit self-sufficient. Information should be collected to facilitate the maximum utilization of the local potentialities such as the geographical resources of the area, including the capacity of the rivers, lakes and canals, and the location of the hills and mountains; the location and amount of mineral, forest and aquatic resources; the agricultural and industrial resources, including the possibilities for agro-industries and agrico-industries; the demography, including the labour skills, health and psychology of the people; the agrarian potential, including the distribution of land for collective needs; and communication. Planning for economic self-sufficiency will have to proceed on the basis of implementing the principles of PROUT by making proper use of this data and information.

In India, as a first step, forty-four socio-economic units may be formed. Many socio-economic units may also be formed all over the world. In most cases, each socio-economic unit will correspond to one political unit, but in some cases more than one socio-economic unit may form one political unit. Each socio-economic unit represents a collection of human beings who want to move together, hence all the people in these units should feel that they are brothers and sisters. Such groupifications can never be ultravires to humanity.

Any non-human or human being who wants to break the solidarity of society must be opposed. You will have to fight against such elements. You will have to fight all antisocial and anti-human forces in Asia, Europe, the world and the entire universe, and you must fight as a single entity. Whenever you fight against inhuman forces, all socio-economic units will fight as one. In this fight, you must fight for all the suppressed and oppressed people of the world.

Socio-economic units will not only have to fulfil people’s social and economic needs, but also their cultural aspirations. Culture denotes all sorts of human expressions. Culture is the same for all humanity, though there are differences in cultural expression.

The best means of communicating human expressions is through one’s mother tongue, as this is most natural. If people’s natural expression through their mother tongue is suppressed, inferiority complexes will grow in their minds, encouraging a defeatist mentality and ultimately leading to psycho-economic exploitation. Thus, no mother tongue should be suppressed.

The imposition of the Hindi language as the national language of India by a section of Indian leaders is an example of linguistic suppression. Hindi is not the natural language of the people in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and other parts of North India. There are many local languages in these regions which are suppressed and need immediate encouragement. To arouse the cultural legacy of the people in these areas and raise their socio-economic consciousness, they must be made aware of who the exploiters are and the nature of psycho-economic exploitation so that they become imbued with fighting spirit.

All languages must be encouraged, but this does not mean opposing the languages spoken by others. In this context, language in itself is of secondary importance. Of primary importance is the negative cultural and socio-economic consequences of linguistic imperialism.

A language usually changes every 1,000 years and a script every 2,000 years. There was no script in the time of the Vedas. The composition of the Vedas started 15,000 years ago and ended 5,000 years ago, thus the entire composition was done over 10,000 years. Script in India was invented about 5,000 years ago. In those days, people used to write on the skin of sheep. Later they started to write on papyrus, and still later papyrus became paper. Bengali was written with wooden pens and Oriya with iron pens. To prevent the paper from being cut by the iron pens, Oriya letters became round.

The seed of expression of all languages is the same. Geo-racial differences were responsible for the emergence of different races which developed numerous languages. The four races in the world are the Austrics, Negroids, Mongolians and Aryans.

The original home of the Aryans was southern Russia, east of the Ural Mountains, now known as the Caucasus. The Muslim region of the Soviet Union includes Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, etc. Today the Aryans can be divided into three groups – Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean. Nordic Aryans come from Scandinavian countries and they have a reddish white complexion and red or golden hair. Alpine Aryans come from Germany and the surrounding area. They have a white complexion, blackish blue hair and blue eyes. Mediterranean Aryans come from southern Europe and have a fair complexion, black hair and black eyes.

The Mongolians have yellowish skin and little hair on their bodies. They can be divided into five groups – the Nipponese, who have big faces and big bodies; the Chinese, who have flat noses and slanting eyes; the Malays, who have small bodies and flat noses; the Indo-Burmese, who have flat noses and comparatively big bodies; and the Indo-Tibetans, who have flat noses and are good-looking.

The Austrics have medium-sized bodies and mud black skin, while the Negroids have black skin, kinky hair and are often quite tall.

Geo-racial conditions produce changes in the vocal cords and other centres or plexi, and consequently the entire pronunciation and other items of language change. Thus, while no language should be suppressed and cultural expression must always be encouraged, language alone is not a sound basis upon which to demarcate socio-economic units or build an integrated society.

To ensure socio-economic development, several additional points will also have be considered in the course of economic planning. For example, people who have to travel to other regions to find employment face various difficulties. Often they have to travel long distances, involving considerable expenditure, and there is the unnecessary burden of maintaining two establishments. Generally, it is preferable if people do not leave their own area to find employment. There is enough scope for creating full employment in every socio-economic unit.

The drainage of money from one region to another must also be checked, otherwise the per capita income in a socio-economic unit cannot increase. Every socio-economic unit should demand the cent per cent utilization of state or central revenue raised in its area till the per capita income is on par with the most developed area in the country. Stopping the drainage of money from a socio-economic unit is the most practical and courageous approach to uprooting exploitation. However, the present leaders will never dare adopt this approach.

To fulfil the mutual needs among socio-economic units, the barter system should be encouraged. For undeveloped and developing countries, the export system may encourage unfair competition, drain scarce resources and lead to exploitation.

PROUT advocates the abolition of income tax. In India today if income tax is abolished and excise duty on excisable commodities is increased by only ten percent, there will be no loss of government revenue. When there is no income tax, nobody will try to accumulate black money. All money will be white money. As a result there will be economic solidarity, an increase in trade and commerce, more investment, more employment and an improvement in the position of foreign exchange. Intellectuals should demand the abolition of income tax.

In addition, there should be free education for all students up to the highest degree, guaranteed employment for all youth, irrigation facilities for all farmers, and cheap rations for all labourers – that is, rations which are cheaper than the present ration rate for all essential commodities such as rice, pulse, flour, sugar and cooking oil.

PROUT’s fundamental policy is that it is against small states because they become taxing and burdensome to the citizens, but in certain circumstances the formation of small states may be justified. For example, a state in a federal system which is not self-sufficient urgently needs developmental programmes, and to materialize these, it may demand a separate allocation of funds in the federal budget. If any state finds that obstacles are being created from some quarter in materializing its developmental programmes, it will have no other alternative but to demand the formation of a separate state.

The sizes of PROUT’s socio-economic units are ever expanding. Smaller units will merge together to form bigger ones. A day may come when all of Southeast Asia will become one unit. The following factors provide the basis for socio-economic units to merge together – economic parity, cultural mixing, communication facilities and administrative efficiency.

Lastly, geo-psychological characteristics should also be considered in socio-economic planning. For example, in India people living in east wet areas tend to be weak and lethargic, while those living in west dry areas tend to be strong and active. This may be called the “East Wet Theory”. Such characteristics are not caused by individual strengths or weaknesses but are the result of geo-psychological factors. The Punjabis live in a dry western region and are physically strong and hard working. The Assamese live in a wet eastern region and are physically weak and lethargic. Such factors should be given due consideration when formulating socio-economic plans.

The applied side of PROUT is based on universal sentiments and not geo-political patriotism, as are other theories and philosophies.

While such theories encourage enmity and rivalry, PROUT’s socio-economic units will all work together and cooperate with each other.

Finally, let us discuss a few examples of how decentralized planning can benefit particular industries. First, take the jute industry. In Bengal, many jute factories were closed after the British left India. This was a disaster for jute farmers as they were then at the mercy of middlemen because they had to sell their jute crops immediately. The main problem of the jute industry at that time was to eliminate these middlemen. To salvage the jute industry today, jute growers should establish producers cooperatives to manufacture and supply jute thread from raw jute. Spinning mills should purchase jute thread directly from the jute producers and manufacture items such as bags, coarse cloth, jackets and coats for consumers cooperatives.

Tobacco is grown in the north of India, processed in the south, and then taken back to the north and sold. Farmers in the north should have the facilities to convert raw tobacco into chopped tobacco. There should be no need to send it to South India for processing. This will lead to more employment.

The match industry was functioning successfully through cooperative production. However, the government undermined this industry by coming to the assistance of big manufacturers when they were being undersold.

The tea that is grown in South India should be replaced by rubber plantations. Although both require much rain, rubber is more useful and profitable than tea. A product should have both usefulness and a ready market.

In Bengal, pineapple leaf fibre can be used for the manufacture of cloth; limestone from Purulia district can be used for making cement; stone chips from Bankura district can be used for roads; raw sugar and mung dhal can be produced from Nadia district; abundant fish can be bred through pisciculture in Birbhum district; and hydroelectric plants can be built in North Bengal where there is much rain. In west Uttar Pradesh and Punjab, sugar cane pulp can be used in the paper industry.

Block-Level Planning

Published in:
A Few Problems Solved Part 8
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 12 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

official source: A Few Problems Solved Part 8 (as "Inter-Block and Intra-Block Planning")

In a decentralized economy, economic planning is to be undertaken for the welfare of the local people. Economic planning will utilize all the mundane and supramundane potentialities of the local area to meet the local requirements.

Economic planning should include the following factors – the cost of production, productivity, purchasing capacity and collective necessity.

Cost of production: In many rural economies, it is a traditional practice for farmers and their family members to work in the fields to grow crops. At the time of fixing the price of their produce, they do not calculate the labour costs involved in cultivating the land or pay wages to their family members. Nor do they determine the cost of the tools or machines they use in the fields, or count the other expenses incurred in producing their crops. Hence, they fail to systematically calculate the per unit cost of production. As a result, they incur losses or perpetually get low prices for their produce.

To solve this problem, agriculture must be reorganized and established on the same basis as industry through the cooperative system. According to PROUT, agriculture should be treated as an organized industry. Only then can the per unit cost of production be systematically determined and the poverty of farmers end. Farmers will get proper prices for their commodities and stability in the agricultural sector will be achieved.

In a Proutistic economy, the cost of production should be systematically determined and kept at the minimum level. All industries, including agrico-industries and agro-industries, must see that the cost of producing a particular commodity does not exceed its market value. Every production unit must be economically viable.

Productivity: The economy will have to be organized in such a way that it has its own innate power to produce more and more. Money should be invested – money should be kept rolling rather than hoarded – so that the collective wealth of society is continually increased.

This principle guides planners so that maximum production will occur according to the collective needs. There should be increasing production based on consumption and full employment for all local people. Products should be developed wherever raw materials are available, and under utilization of any production unit should not be allowed.

If people are guided by the needs and potentialities of their socio-economic unit, the law of productivity is benign. Maximum production in the economy will provide a congenial environment for more investment, more industrialization, more employment, increasing purchasing capacity and increasing collective wealth in an ever progressive manner.

Purchasing capacity: Planning should also result in the increasing purchasing capacity of every person. PROUT does not support the existing practice of considering the per capita income as the index of people’s economic standard. Per capita income is a deceptive and defective measure of collective wealth popularized by capitalist economists to fool people and cover their exploitation. The genuine measure of people’s economic advancement is increasing purchasing capacity.

To increase people’s purchasing capacity, the easy availability of the minimum requirements, stable prices, progressive, periodic increases in wages and salaries, and increasing collective wealth must be ensured.

In a Proutistic economy, there will be no limit to purchasing capacity – that is, purchasing capacity will be ever increasing. The minimum requirements must be guaranteed and should always be increased according to time, space and person, and this can best be done by continuously increasing the purchasing capacity of the people in relation to the economic development of the concerned socio-economic unit. The greater the purchasing power of the people, the higher their standard of living.

Collective necessity: Planners will also have to consider the existing collective needs as well as the future requirements of a socio-economic unit, and chalk out their developmental programmes accordingly. In India, many industries have been established but the production of electricity has not been increased. Through lack of proper planning, power production has lagged behind industrial development. This is especially evident in Bengal and Bihar.

Most importance should be given to the production of the minimum requirements, so planners will have to make provision for the minimum requirements of all, but the requirements of both meritorious people and those with special needs should not be neglected, otherwise the requirements of the age will not be met.

Planning should function on various levels such as the block, district, state, national and global levels, but block-level planning will be the basic level of planning. Block-level planning is essential for economic decentralization, so it should be adopted in all blocks. There should be provision in the constitution for block-level planning for socio-economic development.

The amount of natural and human resources varies from block to block, hence separate economic plans will have to be made for each and every block. There should be a block-level planning board in every block for this purpose. The block-level planning body will prepare a plan for the development of the block and accordingly implement the local developmental programmes. Above the block level there will be a district-level planning board. Thus, from the block level upwards, there will be planning boards to prepare and implement the local plans and programmes. It must be remembered that planning should be of ascending order, starting at the block level, and including all the levels of a socio-economic unit.

Most blocks are currently demarcated on the basis of political considerations. PROUT does not support such divisions. Block divisions should be reorganized according to such factors as the physical features of the area (including river valleys, varying climatic conditions, topography, the nature of the soil, the type of flora and fauna, etc.), the socio-economic requirements and problems of the people, and their physico-psychic aspirations. Thus, blocks should be scientifically and systematically demarcated as the basis for efficient decentralized economic planning.

Each block should be made economically sound so that the entire socio-economic unit will be self-sufficient. Only then will a country or federation become economically strong and developed in the real sense. This is a unique feature of PROUT’s decentralized economic planning.

When planning is prepared for the all-round growth of a single block exclusively, it is called “intra-block planning”. Each block must have its own developmental plan, adjusting with the overall plan of the socio-economic unit at its various levels.

However, there are problems which traverse block boundaries and cannot be tackled or solved by one block alone, such as flood control, river valley projects, communication systems, higher educational institutions, afforestation projects, the environmental impact of development, the establishment of key industries, soil erosion, water supply, power generation, the establishment of an organized market system, etc. So, cooperation among blocks is necessary. Planning among blocks is called “inter-block planning”. Inter-block planning is an economic venture into some selected fields to organize and harmonize socio-economic development in a few adjoining blocks through mutual coordination and cooperation.

At each and every level of planning, there should be short-term and long-term planning. In all cases, the maximum time limit for short-term planning should be six months, and the maximum time limit for long-term planning should be three years. Short-term and long-term plans should be drafted in such a way that they are complementary to each other. The immediate goals of planning at each level are to guarantee the minimum requirements of the local people, eliminate unemployment, increase purchasing capacity and make socio-economic units self-sufficient.

There are many benefits to block-level planning. The area of planning is small enough for the planners to understand all the problems of the area; local leadership will be able to solve the problems according to local priorities; planning will be more practical and effective and will give quick, positive results; local socio-cultural bodies can play an active role in mobilizing human and material resources; unemployment will be easily solved; the purchasing capacity of the local people will be enhanced; and a base for a balanced economy will be established.

The development of local industries will provide immediate economic benefits. The unemployment problem will be rapidly solved, and in a short time it will be possible to create a congenial environment for permanent full employment. In fact, the only way to solve unemployment and bring about full employment throughout the world is by developing block-level industries. The growth of local industries will provide social security to the local people and create greater opportunities for their all-round advancement, because all their basic needs will be met.

The population of every socio-economic unit should be organized on a scientific basis. The problem of a floating population should be tackled on the block level itself. Where there is a floating population, it should be either permanently settled or returned to its original region.

It is inevitable that there will be differences in planning for different regions. Let us take an example. Will the planning for the Punjab and the Cauvery Valleys be the same? The planning cannot be the same in these areas for three main reasons.

First, the Jehlam, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej Rivers in the Punjab are all of Himalayan origin. They provide a perennial source of water because they are ice fed. The Punjab rivers maintain their existence with the help of molten ice. But the rivers of the Cauvery Valley – the Tungabhadra and Cauvery – are of Ghat origin; that is, they originate in the Eastern Ghat and the Western Ghat. They depend upon seasonal rainfall. Although there are two rainy seasons in a year in the Cauvery Valley, they are not perennial sources of water because they are not ice fed. No hydroelectricity can be generated from the Cauvery Valley rivers because of the uncertainty of the water supply, but hydroelectricity can be generated at the Bhakhra Nangal Dam because the rivers in the Punjab contain water throughout the year.

Secondly, the Cauvery Valley, being nearer to the equator, has an extreme climate. The Punjab also has an extreme climate, but this is due to the different winds coming from the northwest and the east. The Cauvery Valley does not depend on any winds. Climatic variations will have to be considered in areas such as agriculture and power generation.

Thirdly, the central portion of the Cauvery Valley consists of wavy, laterite soil and is called the Deccan Plateau. There is a small slice of land situated between the hills and the sea which is comprised of alluvial soil and plain land. Only a small portion of the Deccan Plateau contains alluvial soil. The Punjab is plain land. The Deccan peninsula consists of four coasts – the Utkal Coast, stretching from the Mahanadi to Godavari; the Coromandel Coast, from Godavari to Cape Comorin; the Malabar Coast, from Cape Comorin to Goa; and the Konkan Coast, from Goa to Gujarat. These coastal areas are not composed of wavy land. These coastal portions are known as the granaries of India. In the Telengana area of the Deccan Plateau, there is a chronic shortage of food. In the Cauvery Valley, the eastern coastal area – the Coromandel area – should chalk out a developmental programme. The Deccan Plateau can grow palmyra trees but not coconut trees, whereas the coastal areas can grow both.

A proper approach to planning will take into account all the relevant factors before development schemes are implemented.

Decentralized Economy – 1

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 21 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

The most important economic issue before the leaders of all the countries in the world today is how to increase the standard of living of their citizens through the economic prosperity of the state. This is a burning question, especially in those countries which are economically backward. The matter is not very simple because in many countries people are still directly dependent on nature for their subsistence. Only in a few countries have people been able to utilize their knowledge and wisdom to solve their economic problems.

Most countries in the world – whether capitalist or communist – have adopted the policy of economic centralization. While the economies of the capitalist countries are centralized in the hands of a few capitalists or a few capitalist institutions, the economies of the communist countries are centralized in the hands of the party. After so many years of economic centralization, how successful have these countries been in improving the standard of living of the people? To assess this, the main issue is whether or not economic exploitation has been eradicated and the common people have been guaranteed ever increasing purchasing capacity. The fact is that in a centralized economy there is no possibility that economic exploitation can ever be eradicated or that the economic problems of the common people can ever be permanently solved.

As far as India is concerned, the common people have been led astray time and again by vested interests. Innumerable promises have been made by political leaders, but they have proved to be nothing more than cruel hoaxes. The policy of economic centralization stands exposed as merely a strategy to accumulate increasing capital in the hands of the capitalists. On the one hand the incredulous masses are kept in good humour by promising them something negligible, and on the other hand the capitalists go on amassing enormous wealth. If we examine why this is happening, we will find that the cause is clearly evident. All the economic policies in the country are formulated by a handful of people who are pillars of capitalism.

There is only one way to stop economic exploitation and alleviate the plight of the common people, and that is to implement a policy of decentralized economy in all the sectors of the economy. Successful planning can never be done by sitting in an air conditioned office thousands of miles away from the place where planning is to be undertaken. Centralized economy can never solve the economic problems of remote villages. Economic planning must start from the lowest level, where the experience, expertise and knowledge of the local people can be harnessed for the benefit of all the members of a socio-economic unit. All types of economic problems can be solved only when economic structures are built on the basis of decentralized economy.

The basic question is how to remove the unhealthy influence of centralized economy. The real issue is, who will bell the cat? If the vested interests fail to be guided by righteous intellect, then people will have to take matters into their own hands. They will have to create circumstantial pressure from all sides, uniting around the slogan: “Abolish centralized economy to end exploitation; establish decentralized economy.”

Decentralized economy is the only way that people can attain all-round welfare because it will not only guarantee economic prosperity, but also pave the way for individual and collective psycho-spiritual progress. Once people’s mundane problems have been solved, they will have greater opportunities to develop their potentialities in the psychic and spiritual spheres. With the establishment of decentralized economy, economic and psycho-economic exploitation will be eradicated, the gap between the rich and poor will be minimized and individual and collective welfare will be greatly enhanced. This in turn will create greater opportunities for the psychic and spiritual progress of all members of society.

The first principle of decentralized economy is that all the resources in a socio-economic unit should be controlled by the local people. In particular, the resources which are required to produce the minimum requirements must be in local hands, and all the industries based on these resources will have to be controlled entirely by the local people. Local raw materials must be fully utilized to produce all kinds of commodities necessary for the economic development of a socio-economic unit.

Local people are those who have merged their individual socio-economic interests with the socio-economic interests of the socio-economic unit they live in. Clearly, this concept of local people has nothing to do with physical complexion, race, caste, creed, language or birth place. The fundamental issue is whether or not each person or family has identified their individual socio-economic interests with the collective interests of the concerned socio-economic unit. Those who have not done so should be branded as outsiders.

No outsider should be allowed to interfere in local economic affairs or in the system of production and distribution, otherwise a floating population will develop, causing the outflow of economic wealth from the local area. If this occurs the area will become vulnerable to outside economic exploitation and decentralized economy will be undermined.

The surplus wealth, after meeting the minimum requirements of the people in the local area, should be distributed among the meritorious people according to the degree of their merit. For example, doctors, engineers, scientists and other capable people engaged in various activities require extra amenities so that they can perform greater service to society. While a common person may require a bicycle, a doctor may require a car. But there must also be provision in the economy for reducing the gap between the minimum requirements of all and the amenities of meritorious people. To increase the standard of living of common people, they may be provided with scooters instead of bicycles. Although there is some difference between a scooter and a car, the gap that existed between a car and a bicycle has been partially reduced. The economic gap between common people and meritorious people should be reduced as much as possible, and ceaseless efforts must be made in this regard, but this gap will never vanish altogether. If the gap increases, the common people will be deprived and exploitation will re-emerge in society in the guise of amenities. Decentralized economy leaves no such loophole because on the one hand the standard of the minimum requirements must be increased, and on the other hand the provision of amenities will be assessed from the viewpoint of the collective welfare.

The second principle of decentralized economy is that production should be based on consumption, not profit. Most countries in the world have adopted economic systems which are profit oriented – that is, production is undertaken for profit. Producers give first preference to those items which bring maximum profit, so everywhere there is keen competition regarding the production of the most profitable goods. India is no exception. To increase the standard of living of the people, a new system of production will have to be introduced. Consumption, not profit, should be the underlying motive in the field of production.

In a decentralized economy the commodities produced by a socio-economic unit will be sold in the local market itself. As a result, there will be no uncertainty in the local economy or the economic life of the local population. In addition, money will be circulated within the local market so there will be no outflow of local capital. The possibility of an economic catastrophe in the local economy will be largely eliminated. In such a system, people’s income will have an upward trend and their purchasing capacity will continuously increase. No economic system in the world has been able to continuously increase the purchasing capacity of the people, because economic power is concentrated in the hands of a few.

The third principle of decentralized economy is that production and distribution should be organized through cooperatives. One of the principal reasons for the past failure of the cooperative movement is economic centralization. It is extremely difficult for cooperatives to succeed in an economic environment of exploitation, corruption and materialism, so people cannot accept the cooperative system wholeheartedly. Cooperatives are forced to compete with the monopoly capitalists for local markets, and the rights of the local people over their raw materials are not recognized. Such circumstances have undermined the success of the cooperative movement in many countries of the world.

On the other hand, decentralized economy is one of the principal reasons for the success of the cooperative system. The availability of local raw materials will guarantee constant supplies to cooperative enterprises, and cooperatively produced goods can be easily sold in the local market. Economic certainty will create increasing interest and involvement among the cooperative members, and as the local people will be confident of their economic security, they can wholeheartedly accept the cooperative system.

As far as possible, agriculture, industry and trade should be managed through cooperatives. In these sectors of the economy private ownership should be abolished in stages. Only where production cannot be undertaken by cooperatives because of the complex nature or small scale of operations should it be undertaken by private enterprises. The distribution of commodities should be done through consumers cooperatives. Adequate safeguards for cooperatives will also have to be arranged.

The cooperative system is a must, and it is only possible through decentralized economy. The cooperative system and decentralized economy are inseparable.

The fourth principle of decentralized economy is that the local people must be employed in local economic enterprises. Unless the local people are fully employed in the local economy, unemployment can never be solved. Local people should determine the quantum of minimum requirements and the basic policies connected with their own economic well-being. If this principle is followed the problem of outside interference in the local economy will not arise at all.

Cooperatives will provide employment for local people, and also ensure that the skills and expertise of the local people are fully utilized. Educated people should also be employed in cooperatives so that they do not leave the local area in search of employment or move from the countryside to the cities.

For the development of agriculture there is a great need for specialists and technicians, so cooperatives will have to train unskilled rural people so that they can acquire the necessary skills to develop the agricultural sector. In addition, all types of agro-industries and agrico-industries will have to be developed according to the needs and resources of the local area, and these industries should be managed as cooperatives.

The fifth principle of decentralized economy is that commodities which are not locally produced should be removed from the local markets. As decentralized economy aims to develop local industries and create employment for the local population, those commodities which are not produced within the local area should be banished from the local market as far as possible. It is essential that the local population utilize the commodities produced in their own area to ensure the prosperity of the local economy. Initially, local commodities may be inferior, more costly or less readily available than outside commodities, yet in spite of this, locally produced commodities should still be used by the local people. If local commodities do not meet the needs and aspirations of the people, immediate steps must be taken to increase the quality, reduce the price and increase the supply of local goods, otherwise illegal imports will be encouraged.

In a decentralized economy, the application of this principle is very important. If it is neglected, the local industries will gradually close down, local markets will go out of the hands of the local people and unemployment will increase. Once locally produced goods are accepted in principle, not only will local industries survive, but with their further development the local economy will thrive. The outflow of capital from the local area will be checked, and because it will remain in the local area, it will be utilized to increase production and enhance the prosperity of the local people. With the increasing demand for local commodities, large-scale, medium-scale and small-scale industries will all flourish.

The agricultural, industrial and trade policies of a socio-economic unit will have to be formulated according to the principles of decentralized economy. The maximum utilization and rational distribution of local resources and potentialities to ensure full employment should be given priority, keeping in view that there should be uniform economic development in all regions of a socio-economic unit.

The members of the cooperatives should decide the policies concerning such things as agricultural production, price fixation and the sale of agricultural commodities. Local people should not only control cooperative bodies, but supervise all activities related to the local economy. The local administration will have to assist the economic development of cooperatives. The price of agricultural commodities should be fixed on a rational basis by taking into account the price of commodities; the cost of labour, raw materials, transportation and storage; depreciation; sinking funds; etc. In addition, this price should include a rational profit of not more than fifteen percent of the cost of production. In a decentralized economy agriculture will have the same status as industry.

The industrial system must also be reorganized according to the principles of decentralized economy. If a certain part of a country is over-industrialized, it will impede the economic progress of other regions. Economic decentralization will not allow such a situation to arise. In a decentralized economy, key industries, medium-scale industries and small-scale industries will be managed by different groups of people. In a centralized economy – whether capitalist or communist – these industries are usually managed as either private companies or state enterprises. Most key industries should be managed by the local government but they should be guided by the principle of “no profit, no loss”. Most medium-scale industries should be managed as cooperatives, but they should not be guided by monopoly production and profit. The cooperative sector will be the main sector of the economy. Cooperatives are the best means to organize local people independently, guarantee their livelihood and enable them to control their economic welfare. Most small-scale and cottage industries will be in the hands of individual owners. Small-scale industries should be confined mainly to the production of non-essential commodities such as luxury items. Though privately owned, they must maintain adjustment with the cooperative sector to ensure a balanced economy.

A rural economy should not depend solely on cottage industries, otherwise the economic welfare of the rural population will be jeopardized. If cottage industries are properly organized, rural women will also get ample scope to earn a decent livelihood. Cooperatives and the local administration will have to take the responsibility of supplying cottage industries with raw materials so that they do not suffer from scarcity.

The local administration will also have to arrange for the supply of sufficient power to facilitate industrial production. Every region in a socio-economic unit must strive to be self-sufficient in power generation. The local administration will have to supply locally generated power such as solar energy, thermal energy, bio-gas, hydroelectricity, nuclear energy, pneumatic energy, electromagnetic energy and tidal power, or any other power which is easily available locally. The generation of power is a key industry which should be run on a no profit, no loss basis so that the cost of production is minimized and the purchasing capacity of the people is increased. For example, if batteries are produced through cottage industries, power should be supplied on a no profit, no loss basis, but the battery producers will be able to sell their batteries at a rational profit. Here the power that is used to manufacture the batteries is not an industrial commodity but a raw material. The power for such things as transportation, communication, schools, colleges and hospitals should also be supplied on a no profit, no loss basis to maintain social dynamism. The immediate government or the state government will have to take the responsibility to supply power as a key industry.

All kinds of industrial activities from key industries to cottage industries should be organized with the cooperation of the local population. Care should also be taken so that private enterprises are set up by the local people. Local people must be given preference in employment, and all local people should be locally employed. If this policy is followed, there will be no surplus or deficit labour among the local people, and if many people do come from outside areas, they will not find a place in the local economy. Where a floating population exists in a particular region, the outflow of capital remains unchecked and the economic development of the area is undermined.

Trade in a decentralized economy should be organized by distributing commodities through consumers cooperatives. There will be no income tax, but there should be a tax levied on the production of each commodity. Commodities should be exported from one region or socio-economic unit to other regions or units through cooperatives.

In the decentralized economy of PROUT, exporting local raw materials is not supported. Only finished goods should be exported under certain circumstances. After all the requirements of the local people in a socio-economic unit have been met, the surplus goods may be exported, but only to a socio-economic unit which has no immediate opportunity or potential to produce them, in order to meet the requirements of the people in that unit. And even then, the whole transaction of importation and exportation should be undertaken directly by cooperatives, and the exportation of commodities must not be motivated by profit. If there are insufficient raw materials in any socio-economic unit to meet the minimum requirements of the local people, the necessary raw materials may be imported from another socio-economic unit providing it can be carefully verified that the raw materials in the latter unit are surplus. Free trade should be encouraged once self-sufficiency is attained, as this will help facilitate increased prosperity and encourage economic parity among socio-economic units, and lead to the formation of larger socio-economic units.

Another important characteristic of decentralized economy is that money will always remain in circulation, hence the economy will move with accelerating speed. The value of money depends on the extent of its circulation. The more frequently money changes hands, the greater its economic value. The greater the value of money, the greater the prosperity in individual and collective life, and the greater the opportunities for all-round welfare.

There is a close relationship between the economic prosperity of people and their psychic and cultural development. Improvements in individual and collective life will lead to the all-round welfare of people. If local people do not develop a sense of self-confidence in their economic activities, then they become mentally weak, and this inherent weakness becomes an impediment to their economic well-being. Such a community will become an easy victim of economic, political and psycho-economic exploitation by vested interests. This unhealthy situation must be firmly resisted. Thus, the local language is to be used in all local dealings and transactions. That is, the local language should be used in the administration, the education system, the economy, and in cultural activities. All official and non-official bodies and offices of a particular socio-economic unit should use the local language as the medium of communication.

The overall well-being of society is the ultimate goal of decentralized economy. This is a comprehensive ideal and should be established in each and every socio-economic unit. It will bring about economic prosperity as well as ensure greater opportunities for the psycho-spiritual elevation of all members of society.

Decentralized Economy – 2

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 16 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

Gandhaháriń/gandhahárińii section, Discourse 148
Shabda Cayaniká Part 19

official source: Prout in a Nutshell Part 16

Published in Prout in a Nutshell Part 16 as “Socio-Economic Decentralization”.

At the beginning of civilization, the desire to create arts and crafts arose in the human mind. At that time artisans used to work at home, and arts and crafts were produced in cottage industries. Men, women, boys and girls – all participated in the creation of arts and crafts. Later people realized that some arts and crafts could not be produced in every village, so certain artifacts were produced by a few combined villages. If artisans had not combined together, they would have suffered losses in the market place, and their numbers would have been significantly reduced. So gradually human beings started to go and work in places where production was done collectively, or the first factories. At that time the few industries that existed were decentralized.

In this connection one thing should be remembered – the more that arts and crafts are decentralized, the greater the benefits for human society. Decentralization does not diminish or dissipate economic potential. Rather, decentralization removes regional disparity because wealth is distributed almost equally everywhere. We do not find situations where people in some places cry out in agony due to scarcity and starvation, while people in other places become immoral due to excessive affluence and over abundance. In fact, industrial centralization is detrimental to a well-knit social order.

In a decentralized economy people do not have to leave their homes to work in an industry, and consequently they are saved from the expenditure of maintaining two establishments. Moreover, decentralization increases the possibility of saving labour, because people can earn their livelihood while simultaneously taking care of their household responsibilities.

This arrangement is not possible under capitalism. Capitalism will never support decentralization, because capitalist production exists to maximize profits. Centralization means industry for profit, while decentralization means industry for consumption. PROUT’s approach, which will be supported by all rational people, is production for consumption. PROUT’s maxim is, “Production for consumption, not production for profiteering.”

Capitalists want to produce commodities at the lowest costs and sell them at the highest prices. To produce commodities cheaply, there must be efficient transportation, cheap raw materials, cheap labour, cheap energy, adequate water supply, etc. No matter what form capitalism takes – individual capitalism, group capitalism or state capitalism – capitalists will always prefer centralized production. All these forms of capitalism are essentially the same.

Thousands of industries have mushroomed around Calcutta, Bombay, Ahmedabad, Delhi, Kanpur and Madras in India due to this capitalistic mentality. Remote places such as Khairasol in Birbhum district, Puncha in Purulia district, Goghat in Arambagh district and Nakashipara in Nadia district have been neglected. They have gone to sleep, crying in cimmerian darkness. Perhaps only a few people have even heard of these places. How could they? The people living there are extremely poor. They are incapable of purchasing a woollen wrapper for winter, what to speak of expensive woollen clothing.

In India regional disparity is increasing. Calcutta’s per capita income is twenty percent higher than the rest of Bengal, while the Punjab’s per capita income is higher than Haryana’s and Orissa’s. The people of Delhi enjoy much greater liberty and comfort than the villagers of Purulia district. Regional disparity is detrimental to the cause of a healthy social order. PROUT is the only panacea. There is no other solution.

Communism is state capitalism which is why it is not free from the defects of capitalism. State capitalists, like individual and group capitalists, control industries. State capitalism means state controlled industries. In other words, in state capitalism industries are centralized. Communist countries support state capitalism, which means centralized production. While communism appears to differ from capitalism on the question of popular liberation, capitalism and communism are the same internally. Fruits of the same variety may have different colour skins, but their seeds are the same. Capitalism and communism are fruits of the same variety.

To ensure the social and economic liberation of human beings, the maximum amount of socio-economic decentralization is essential. While it may be difficult to establish village-level economic infrastructure at present, there is no insurmountable obstacle preventing us from establishing block-level economic infrastructure. As far as possible, the establishment, operation and distribution of all industries should be done at block level. Only when this cannot be done should industries be organized at a higher level. Obviously, industries such as iron and steel factories cannot function in every village, block and district, so they should function in a larger area.

There are some special types of key industries which can conveniently function as either small-scale industries or medium-scale cooperative industries. If some key industries are structured in this way, they must be under state control. Care should be taken to ensure that they are properly organized and widespread. Such key industries should never be controlled by capitalists, otherwise the interests of the people will be partially if not fully ignored. Moreover, if they are left in the hands of capitalists, many different kinds of problems will arise. Normally only very large-scale key industries should be under state control, and these industries should be centralized instead of decentralized. But industries which cannot be readily decentralized today may be decentralized in the future due to changing circumstances. At that time the decentralization of key industries must be implemented.

There are also many other adverse effects of industrial centralization. For example, in large cities it is difficult for people to remain healthy because of the scarcity of fresh fruits, vegetables and milk. Immorality and corruption are rampant. Thieves, criminals, drug addicts, alcoholics and antisocial elements easily conceal themselves and prey on innocent people. Malnutrition, air pollution, water pollution as well as other problems also exist. All large industrial centres presently suffer from these defects.

In ancient times, people who travelled great distances to reach their place of work in order to earn their livelihood were called gandhahárin. Women and girls did not usually work outside the home. They normally stayed at home, took care of their household duties and worked as well. Highly skilled people do not often get proper recognition and adequate facilities if they live in remote areas. Rather, they usually have to travel long distances just to arrange their livelihood.

In medieval times skilled ivory artisans used to live in Burdwan district, but there was no market for ivory there. There was a large ivory market in Murshidabad, and smaller markets in Bankura, Vishnupur and Dhaka, consequently the skilled ivory artists of Burdwan were compelled to travel to those places.

Skilled artisans who are compelled to travel to another place for work are called gandhahárik or gandhaháriká in Sanskrit.

Economic Democracy

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 21 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Nearly all the countries of the world today have come under some sort of democratic structure. Liberal democracy has been established in such countries as the USA, Great Britain, France and Canada, while in the Soviet Union, China, Vietnam and Eastern Europe socialist democracy is the dominant system. The plight of the people in liberal democratic (so-called democratic) countries is not as miserable as it is in communist countries, because in communist countries the political and economic system is imposed on society by party officials, causing untold human suffering and severe psycho-economic exploitation. Both liberal democracy and socialist democracy may be considered forms of political democracy because these systems are based on economic and political centralization.

In all countries where democracy is in vogue today, people have been deceived into believing that there is no better system than political democracy. Political democracy has no doubt granted voting rights, but it has snatched away the right of economic equality. Consequently, there is gross economic disparity between the rich and the poor, immense inequality in people’s purchasing capacity, unemployment, chronic food shortages, poverty and insecurity in society.

The type of democracy prevalent in India is also political democracy, and it has proved to be a unique system of exploitation. The Indian constitution was created by three groups of exploiters: the British imperialists, the Indian imperialists and the ruling parties representing the Indian capitalists. All the provisions of the Indian constitution were framed keeping an eye on furthering the interests of these opportunists. Just to hoodwink the masses, the people were granted the right of universal suffrage. Millions of Indians are poor, superstitious and illiterate, yet the exploiters, through such practices as making false promises, intimidation, gross abuse of administrative power and vote rigging, repeatedly win over the electorate. This is the farce of democracy. Once they form the government, they get ample opportunity to indulge in rampant corruption and political tyranny for five years. In the subsequent elections – whether on the provincial or state level – the same absurdity is repeated.

This type of political opportunism has been going on in India since independence. For the last thirty-five years, the political parties have maintained that in order to attain economic parity with the industrially developed countries of Europe, India must follow the democratic system. To support this argument, they cite the examples of America and Great Britain or China and the Soviet Union. The political leaders urge the electorate to vote in their favour at election time so that the country’s starving masses can reap the benefits of a developed economy. But once the elections are over, the exploitation of the common people continues unabated in the garb of political democracy, and other areas of social life are completely neglected. Today millions of Indian citizens are being deprived of the minimum requirements of life and are struggling to procure adequate food, clothing, housing, education and medical treatment, while a handful of people are rolling in enormous wealth and luxury.

One of the most obvious defects of democracy is that voting is based upon universal suffrage. That is, the right to cast a vote depends on age. Once people reach a certain age, it is assumed that they have the requisite capacity to weigh the pros and cons of the issues in an election and select the best candidate. But there are many people above the voting age who have little or no interest in elections and are not conversant with social or economic issues. In many cases, they vote for the party rather than the candidate, and are swayed by election propaganda or the false promises of politicians. Those who have not reached the voting age are often more capable of selecting the best candidate than those who are entitled to vote. So age should not be the yardstick for voting rights.

Whether or not a candidate gets elected usually depends upon party affiliation, political patronage and election expenditure. In some cases it also depends on antisocial practices. Throughout the world, money plays a dominant role in the electoral process, and in nearly all cases, only those who are rich and powerful can hope to secure elected office. In those countries where voting is not compulsory, often only a small percentage of the population participates in the electoral process.

The prerequisites for the success of democracy are morality, education and socio-economico-political consciousness. Leaders especially must be people of high moral character, otherwise the welfare of society will be jeopardized. But today in most democracies, people of dubious character and those with vested interests are elected to power. Even bandits and murderers stand for election and form the government.

In almost all the countries of the world, the masses lack political consciousness. Cunning, erudite politicians take advantage of this shortcoming to confuse people and attain power. They resort to immoral practices such as bribery, vote rigging, booth capturing and buying of votes, and stand unopposed for elections. Consequently, the standard of morality in society is declining, and honest, competent people are relegated to the background. Moral leaders have less chance to win elections because election results are rigged through financial inducements, intimidation and brute force. In the present democratic system, all sorts of immoral and corrupt practices are given the opportunity to pervert society. The very nature of the present system is that it favours the capitalists and exposes the administration to immoral and corrupt forces.

The farce of democracy has been likened to a puppet show where a handful of power hungry politicians pull the strings from behind the scene. In liberal democracies, capitalists manipulate the mass media such as the radio, television and newspapers, while in socialist democracies the bureaucrats lead the country to the brink of destruction. In both forms of democracy, there is little scope for honest, competent leaders to emerge in society, and virtually no possibility for the economic liberation of the people.

Political democracy has become a great hoax for the people of the world. It promises the advent of an era of peace, prosperity and equality, but in reality it creates criminals, encourages exploitation and throws common people into an abyss of sorrow and suffering.

The days of political democracy are numbered. PROUT demands economic democracy, not political democracy. To make democracy successful, economic power must be vested in the hands of the common people and the minimum requirements of life must be guaranteed to all. This is the only way to ensure the economic liberation of the people. PROUT’S slogan is: “To end exploitation we demand economic democracy, not political democracy.”

In economic democracy, economic and political power are bifurcated. That is, PROUT advocates political centralization and economic decentralization. Political power is vested with the moralists, but economic power is vested with the local people. The principal goal of the administration is to remove all the impediments and obstacles which prevent the economic needs of the people being met. The universal aim of economic democracy is to guarantee the minimum requirements of life to all members of society.

Nature has been kind enough to provide abundant natural resources to every region of this earth, but she has not given guidelines on how to distribute these resources among the members of society. This duty has been left to the discretion and intelligence of human beings. Those who are guided by dishonesty, selfishness and mean-mindedness misappropriate these resources and utilize them for their individual or group interests rather than for the welfare of the whole society. Mundane resources are limited but human longings are limitless. Hence, for all the members of society to live in peace and prosperity, human beings have to adopt a system which ensures the maximum utilization and rational distribution of all resources. To achieve this, human beings will have to establish themselves in morality and then create a congenial environment for morality to flourish.

Economic decentralization means production for consumption, not production for profit. Economic decentralization is not possible under capitalism, because capitalist production always tries to maximize profit. Capitalists invariably produce at the lowest costs and sell at the highest profits. They prefer centralized production, which leads to regional economic disparity and imbalances in the distribution of the population. In the decentralized economy of PROUT on the other hand, production is for consumption, and the minimum requirements of life will be guaranteed to all. All regions will get ample scope to develop their economic potentiality, so the problems of a floating population or overcrowding in urban centres will not be allowed to arise.

Unless a country attains optimum development in industry and other sectors of the economy, it is impossible for it to be highly developed. If more than thirty to forty-five percent of a country’s population is engaged in agriculture, there will be excessive pressure on the land. Such a country cannot become highly developed, nor can there be balanced, decentralized development in all sectors of the economy. India is a classic example of this. About seventy-five percent of India’s population is dependent on agriculture for its livelihood.

In some democratic countries such as Canada and Australia a large percentage of the population is engaged in agriculture, and although these countries are regarded as agriculturally developed, they depend on industrially developed countries because they themselves are industrially undeveloped. For instance, Canada has traditionally been dependent on the USA, and Australia on Britain.

As far as India is concerned, as long as around seventy-five percent of the population is engaged in agriculture, the unbearable economic plight of the people will continue. Any country confronted with such circumstances will find it very difficult to meet its domestic and international responsibilities. The purchasing capacity of the people will keep decreasing, while economic disparity will go on increasing. The social, economic and political environment of the whole country will degenerate. India is a clear example of all these evils.

So, economic decentralization does not mean that the majority of the population will be dependent on agriculture for their livelihood or that the other sectors of the economy will remain undeveloped. Rather, each sector of the economy must strive for maximum development, and all sectors must strive for maximum decentralization.

In all the democratic counties of the world, economic power is concentrated in the hands of a few individuals and groups. In liberal democracies economic power is controlled by a handful of capitalists, while in socialist countries economic power is concentrated in a small group of party leaders. In each case a handful of people – the number can be easily counted on one’s fingertips – manipulates the economic welfare of the entire society. When economic power is vested in the hands of the people, the supremacy of this group of leaders will be terminated, and political parties will be destroyed forever.

People will have to opt for either political democracy or economic democracy. That is, they will have to choose a socio-economic system based on either a centralized economy or a decentralized economy. Which one will they select? Political democracy cannot fulfil the hopes and aspiration of people or provide the basis for constructing a strong and healthy human society. The only way to achieve this is to establish economic democracy.

The first requirement for economic democracy is that the minimum requirements of a particular age – including food, clothing, housing, education and medical treatment – must be guaranteed to all. Not only is this an individual right, it is also a collective necessity, because the easy availability of the minimum requirements will increase the all-round welfare of society.

The second requirement for economic democracy is that increasing purchasing capacity must be guaranteed to each and every individual. In economic democracy local people will hold economic power. Consequently, local raw materials will be used to promote the economic prosperity of the local people. That is to say, the raw materials of one socio-economic unit should not be exported to another unit. Instead, industrial centres should be built up wherever raw materials are available. This will create industries based on locally available raw materials and ensure full employment for all local people.

The third requirement for economic democracy is that the power to make all economic decisions must be placed in the hands of the local people. Economic liberation is the birthright of every individual. To achieve it, economic power must be vested in the local people. In economic democracy the local people will have the power to make all economic decisions, to produce commodities on the basis of collective necessity, and to distribute all agricultural and industrial commodities.

The fourth requirement for economic democracy is that outsiders must be strictly prevented from interfering in the local economy. The outflow of local capital must be stopped by strictly preventing outsiders or a floating population from participating in any type of economic activity in the local area.

For the success of economic democracy, PROUT must be implemented and the economic welfare of all people must be enhanced step by step. This in turn will lead to greater opportunities for the spiritual emancipation of human beings.

Finally, it should be remembered that economic democracy is essential not only for the economic liberation of human beings, but for the universal well-being of all – including plants and animals. Economic democracy will devise ways and means to effect the smooth progress of society by recognizing the unique value of both humans and non-humans alike.

Elevating Backward Classes

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 15 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Throughout the world many groups of people are in urgent need of relief. They are suffering from physical, psychic and spiritual deprivation because the different socio-economic systems in vogue only pander to particular sections of society, neglecting those in need and society as a whole.

Marxism, for example, divides society into the capitalists and the proletariat. The state is theoretically for the welfare of the proletariat or shúdras, and the non-proletariat are suppressed or oppressed. This is the rule of the shúdras. But actually there cannot be any rule of the shúdras. The very concept of proletariat dictatorship is unrealistic, impractical and unscientific. Marxism is a utopian ideal which has no roots in the soil of reality.

In 1977 there was a great change in the constitution of the Soviet Union. It gave up its stupid bogey of proletariat rule and declared itself a welfare state. But even still, Marxism is like a house of cards that will fall apart after a light hammering. It will leave no impact in this practical world.

In capitalism or democracy the state is theoretically for the welfare of the majority, but in practice it is the rule of the minority of vaeshyas. Other groups of people are forced to become second grade citizens.

The Proutistic social order follows the principle sarva jana hitáya – that is, PROUT is for the welfare of all. Nobody is suppressed or oppressed. PROUT supports the rule of sadvipras. Only sadvipras can guarantee the all-round welfare of all groups of people because sadvipras represent the interests of all classes in society.

Until PROUT is established, however, special efforts should be made to protect the interests of backward classes. For example, tribal people are among the most deprived of the backward classes. In Tripura and many parts of India, and in other countries of the world as well, tribal people are poor and illiterate. Special steps should be taken immediately to enhance their socio-economic development. Such steps should include the removal of all educational inequalities; the widespread establishment of cottage industries; proper agricultural facilities, especially irrigation water; self-reliance in energy production, such as electricity; increased communication facilities, such as telephones; and better transportation infrastructure, such as railways.

In addition, the population of several other groups in the world is rapidly decreasing, and some groups are in danger of extinction. These include the Zulus and Pygmies of Africa; the Lodhas of Bengal; the Birhars of Chotanagpur; the Málas of Malda; the Angars of Rohtas in Bihar whose language is Bhojpurii; the Ladakhis of Kashmir; the Scheduled Castes of Kinnaur; the Romanish of Europe; and the Maoris of Australia and New Zealand. Although the Kaevartas are not in danger of extinction, their rate of population growth is less than the normal rate.

In some countries of the world such as India, job reservation has been introduced to provide employment to backward classes and ensure their economic advancement. However, job reservation is not in tune with the ideology of PROUT. That is, when PROUT is established, nobody will feel the necessity of job reservation because everybody’s progress is guaranteed in PROUT. In the Proutistic system people will not seek jobs – jobs will seek people.

In the present socio-economic environment, however, if the following preferential system is adopted as a temporary measure, then the suffering of the people may be alleviated. First, poor people coming from backward families should get first preference in the fields of services and education, irrespective of their birth affiliation. Second preference should go to the poor people coming from non-backward families. Third preference should go to the non-poor people coming from backward families. Last preference should go to the non-poor people coming from non-backward families. Here, “backward” means families who did not get any services or education in the past. Such families should continue to get these facilities until there is no poverty in the country – that is, until the minimum requirements are guaranteed.

Thus, the criteria for receiving preferential services and education should not be birth affiliation but a person’s economic condition. A so-called low caste shoe repair man may be economically well-off, thus the advantage of job reservation is superfluous for him and misleading for society. There is no need of job reservation in these circumstances. On the other hand, there may be a Maethil Brahmin who comes from a so-called high caste family but is economically very poor. Job reservation is essential for him, and would increase the economic standard of the entire society.

Many undeveloped and developing countries are struggling to elevate their backward classes. For example, Bihar is at war over the question of backward and forward classes. If the above system is followed, it would certainly end all possibility of struggle among backward and forward classes in India and other countries of the world. At the same time, it would automatically provide people with the opportunity for social justice and economic self-sufficiency. Without giving any consideration to caste, creed, religion, race, language or sex, governments would be able to create a suitable environment for the all-round and quick development of all local people, providing them with food, clothing, housing, education and medical treatment. This would eliminate any feeling of inferiority from their minds, and all would have the opportunity of earning their livelihood on the basis of their capabilities.

East Wet Theory

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 19 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

The vast area of eastern India comprising West Bengal, Bangladesh, Tripura and Assam has a distinctive climate which is hot and humid. Because of the proximity to the sea, the cold and heat is not extreme, yet there is some difference between the climate of the eastern and western parts. The climate of the western part is comparatively hot and dry, and the temperature reaches 120 degrees Fahrenheit in summer, but in winter it comes down to 45 degrees Fahrenheit. The climate of the eastern part, that is, Tripura and Assam, is comparatively wet and humid. The amount of average rainfall in the Ráŕh area in the western region varies from 50 to 55 inches, whereas the rainfall in the eastern part, in Assam and Meghalaya, is 508 inches. In the north, in Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri, the amount of rainfall is 120 inches per year. In the Sundarban area in the south, the average rainfall is 100 inches. As the southeastern monsoon moves west it lashes the Himalayas, causing rainfall in Assam, Tripura, Bangladesh, West Bengal, Ráŕh and Bihar, but the more it proceeds westward, the more the moisture in the air decreases.

The geographical environment largely controls and influences the food habits, dress, daily activities and behaviour of the local population. The local climate even controls the moods and sentiments, ethnic characteristics and social habits of the people. People who live in humid climates tend to be less active than the inhabitants of a comparatively dry area. The humidity and heat in the climate together bring down the level of activity of the local inhabitants, and make them somewhat averse to physical labour.

By applying this principle, one will discover that the more one proceeds towards the west of India, and the amount of the humidity decreases, the more the inhabitants become active and proficient. A dry climate increases the working power of the inhabitants, and this is the reason why the people of western India are physically more industrious than the inhabitants of eastern India.

The Punjab is the westernmost state of India, and Assam is the easternmost state. With respect to humidity and dryness, there is a tremendous difference in the climate of these two regions. The climatic differences have brought about differences in the food habits, clothing, social customs and characteristics of the people. The Punjabis of the westernmost part of India live in the driest climate and are physically more active and tire less easily than the people of the other states, whereas the Assamese, living in the humid and wet regions of eastern India, are much less active and more lethargic than the people in the rest of the country. This is why the Punjabis find it easy to settle in any part of India, but the people of eastern India find it difficult to settle down and labour hard in the dry regions of the west. The people of the east cannot adjust and compete physically with the more industrious population of the west.

This is also the reason why the refugees from East Bengal who settled in India after partition could not successfully adjust with the hot and dry climate of Dandyakaranya in Madhya Pradesh. Of course, their inability to adjust also had an economic cause, because they were not provided with an adequate means of livelihood. In comparison, the East Bengal refugees who settled in Assam, Meghalaya and the Andaman Islands easily adjusted with the local environment. The main reason for this was that the refugees in these areas readily adapted to the local climate. The refugees who settled in Dandyakaranya are still regarded as a floating population, whereas those in the eastern states – Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura and Manipur – are permanently settled. They have cleared the land in certain areas, constructed villages and developed stable means of livelihood.

The East Wet theory of population provides the natural and scientific solution to the refugee problem, because according to this theory the people can take full advantage of the local climatic conditions. The East Bengal refugees who settled in eastern India were able to utilize their working capacity, and they established permanent homes in the eastern regions. They totally identified with the economic interests of the local population who were already settled there. To try and dislodge them would not only be unscientific, but also inhuman.

The Congress leaders, on the eve of the partition of Bengal, repeatedly promised the minority community of East Bengal that they could settle in any part of India. The East Bengal minorities believed these promises and accepted the partition of Bengal. Now an agitation is going on in Assam to try and expel the East Bengal refugees who settled there. The central government should adhere to its original promise and negotiate with the Assamese agitators to ensure the welfare of the refugees who settled in Assam.

Most of the refugees who settled in Nadia and 24 Parganas districts in Bengal have become the permanent residents of these areas. They have had no difficulty whatsoever in utilizing their physical capacities, because they are the members of almost the same physico-socio-economic zone and enjoy the congenial atmosphere of the local climate. However, some of the refugees who settled in 24 Parganas are still a floating population even now, because sufficient means of livelihood has so far not been made available to them.

The psychological defect of a floating population is this – the people fail to accept a new locality as their own home, so they cannot forget the land they left behind. This is the reason why the speed of their socio-economic integration and progress is slower than that of the local people.

Population Growth and Control

Published in:
A Few Problems Solved Part 9
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 13 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

The socio-economic environment of society today is extremely restless and disturbed. In this abnormal environment population growth has been projected as a menacing threat to the existence of human society, but in fact this sort of propaganda is nothing but an evil conspiracy engineered by vested interests. No problem is greater than the human capacity to solve it. Like all problems confronting humanity, the problem of population growth should be tackled and solved in a proper way.

In the natural course of evolution, birth and death maintain the continuity of the never ending flow of creation. Every day, with the birth of babies, the parents and the other family members naturally enjoy great happiness. But it is a matter of sorrow that there are some people in the government or other spheres of public life who consider the increase in the birth rate a curse on the society. This negative attitude is definitely a blot on the human race, which has achieved a degree of intellectual development and scientific knowledge.

Is the population problem really a natural problem? The population problem should be considered in the context of two vital factors – the availability of food and the availability of space. Today human beings have sufficient means to manage their food. The earth is abundant enough in food resources to feed many times more than the present population. Due to lack of coordinated cooperation, collective effort, a proper ideology and sound planning, society has been fragmented into many belligerent groups and sub-groups, and rich and poor nations have been created. As a result of this fissiparous tendency, society is presently incapable of producing enough food to meet human requirements. The tragedy is that even though there are enough resources to supply nutritious food to all the human beings on the planet, due to the defective socio-economic systems, an efficient method of distribution has not been developed.

Moreover, there is no shortage of living space on the planet if the existing space is properly utilized. Because the earth has been balkanized due to so many arbitrary social, economic and political restrictions and the pervasive influence of evil dogma, people are unable to tackle problems in a natural way. If there were maximum utilization and rational distribution of all natural resources, pressing socio-economic problems could be easily solved.

It is a law of nature that a mother is provided with sufficient breast milk to feed her newly born baby. In the same way nature has generously provided sufficient resources to meet the food and other essential requirements of all human beings. People need to utilize these natural resources in a proper way. Shortages of food or space cannot be blamed on nature. These problems are essentially the results of the mistakes made by human beings.

It is a fact that the population of the world is rapidly increasing, and consequently many people have become frightened. In capitalist countries there are sufficient reasons for such fear. In these countries an increase in the population means a corresponding increase in the poverty of the people. But there is no reason for such fear in a collective economic system. In the event of shortages in food and accommodation people will collectively convert barren land into arable land, increase agricultural production by scientific methods and produce food by chemical processes using the potentiality of earth, water and air. And if this earth loses its productivity, then human beings will migrate to other planets and satellites and settle there.

If people living in capitalist countries voluntarily adopt birth control methods to avoid economic hardship, perhaps we should not criticize them. But it should be mentioned here that using birth control methods which deform the bodies of men and women or destroy their reproductive powers forever cannot be supported, because this may cause a violent mental reaction at any moment.

Under the present socio-economic conditions, PROUT advocates a comprehensive, clear-cut policy to tackle the population problem. According to PROUT, population growth will automatically find a natural level if the following four factors exist in society.

First, there should be economic liberty in society so that people may get a nutritious diet. In Scandinavia, for example, the purchasing capacity of the people is high and they enjoy a good standard of living. Because of this they do not face the problem of overpopulation.

Secondly, everybody should have the right to enjoy sound health. If people have a healthy body and mind their glandular system will remain balanced, and they can easily transform their physical energy into psychic energy and their psychic energy into spiritual energy. Through this effort of channelizing the mind in a spiritual direction, the baser mental propensities are easily controlled.

Thirdly, people should be free from unnecessary mental worries and anxieties. When one suffers from mental agonies continually, the mind naturally indulges in baser physical enjoyment to get rid of that unwanted condition. When mental agonies disappear, human beings will enjoy peace of mind and be able to assimilate subtle ideas.

Fourthly, the intellectual standard of humanity will have to be elevated. With intellectual advancement human beings will develop their all-round psychic potentiality and can easily evolve their psycho-spiritual potentiality. Through continuous effort human beings will be able to attain the supreme stance, merging their individual unit existence into Cosmic existence.

Thus, the population problem is not just an economic problem – it includes economic, biological, psychological and intellectual aspects.

Today people give more importance to the political than to the bio-psychological and economic aspects of population growth.

The theory that population increases at a geometric rate while food production increases at an arithmetic rate is completely defective. Such a situation can only occur in an imbalanced economic system. In a progressive and balanced economic system no such problem will exist.

It is completely wrong to propagate the idea that a rapidly increasing population will affect the collective economic structure. Today capitalists are trying to check population growth by propagating birth control because an increasing population is detrimental to capitalism. In a collective economic structure there will be no need to support birth control. Rather, an increasing population will help in the production of the essential commodities.

Good varieties of seed, fertile land, adequate nourishment, light, air and water are all essential for good reproduction in both the plant and animal kingdoms. In this respect human beings are no different from other creatures. In human society the selection of suitable males and females is desirable for reproduction of a high order. Until human beings are produced in scientific laboratories, it will be detrimental to society if this matter is neglected.

If people of sublime intelligence and brilliance reproduce more offspring, it will be very beneficial for society. The responsibility for nurturing and bringing up these children will have to be taken by the society or the government. Similarly, it will be harmful for society if mentally deficient, naturally delinquent or insane persons produce many children. In fact, society will be benefited by the permanent destruction of their reproductive capacity, providing this does not cause any harmful reaction.

Science has reached such a stage that it can usher in a new era. It can produce synthetic food in the form of tablets to help solve the food problems of the world. A single food tablet can be sufficient to provide sustenance for a whole day, so we need not fear population increases. Future generations will spend more of their time and energy on subtle psychic and spiritual activities, so their demand for physical food will decrease.

Through oceanographic research abundant food resources have been discovered within the ocean and on the sea bed. With the application of science and technology we can harness these resources to meet the challenge of the food problem. The crisis faced by society today indicates that humanity is not encouraging the maximum utilization and rational distribution of the world’s potentialities. Science today is being used to develop increasingly destructive weapons of war rather than for benevolent and constructive purposes.

Society will have to adopt a collective economic system for maximum production and economic security in order to control accumulation; ensure the rational distribution of collective wealth through a well-knit cooperative system; implement decentralized socio-economic planning; and secure the maximum utilization of all types of mundane, supramundane and spiritual potentialities. So far society has not adopted such an approach so it has been unable to solve the food problem.

Instead, certain inhuman birth control practices have been forcibly promoted. Not only are such practices detrimental to a healthy human body and mind, they cause physical deformity, disturbances and misunderstandings in family life, and mental derangement and debility. Those inflicted with such psychic ailments lose the courage to face adversity in life and the power to fight for social justice.

Imposing a fear of population growth is nothing but a cunning conspiracy by vested interests to misguide people and exploit society. Optimistic people throughout the world will have to unite and raise their voices against such a heinous conspiracy, and work together to construct a just and benevolent society.

Developmental Programmes

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 15 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

section on “Gańat́aḿka”, Discourse 121
Shabda Cayaniká Part 16

In ancient times bullion was used as the medium of political and commercial transactions. In most countries gold was the preferred bullion, but in some countries silver bullion was also used. Of the countries which used gold bullion, some recognized silver bullion and some did not. If a country which used gold bullion refused to recognize silver bullion, commercial bullion transactions between the countries were not possible because of the bullion differences. Such countries engaged in barter trade.

Kuranga badale lavanga nibo kumkum badale chuyá
Gáchphal badale jáiphal pábo baherar badale guyá.

[We shall accept cloves in exchange for stag. We shall accept
paste for pollen.
We will accept hot spices in exchange for fruit. We shall accept
medicinal fruit in exchange for nuts.]

In olden days Bengal used to conduct barter trade with countries such as Sri Lanka and Burma. Much of the commercial trade in rural Bengal was conducted through barter and only a negligible portion through the exchange of bullion. Farmers used to buy commodities from people of different vocations in exchange for their agricultural merchandise. Even 150 years ago there was hardly any exchange of bullion in the Birbhum district of Ráŕh. Peasants used to buy mangoes, lambs, lamps, dhotis and saris in exchange for rice. Carpenters used to buy cutters and knives in exchange for wooden articles or beaten rice. The village people of Bengal called this system “barter trade”. Where there was a difference in the standard of bullion, commodities were not sold through gold or silver bullion.

The rulers (monarchy was the system in those days) used to deposit gold or silver bullion in the public exchequer. Some portion was spent on the salaries of government employees and to meet the expenses of the government’s developmental programmes.

The place where the rulers produced bullion was called t́ankashálá – in English, “mint”. The words t́anká, tanká and tankha have come from the word t́anka. Even today in northern India, the word tankha is used in the sense of “salary” or “pension”. In the Shubhauṋkarii [mathematical charts used for calculations], Shubhauṋkara Dás, a káyastha from Bankura district in Ráŕh said, Mańprati yata tanká hoibek dar… That is, “For every mań [maund, thirty-seven kilos] the price in tanká will be…” The amount of money which the government releases for public use in the market is called gańatanka.

Though it is a slight digression, I would like to add the following. The clay modelling and temple construction industries have left many beautiful relics of subtle art which demonstrate the finer sensibilities of the human mind. In ancient India, especially in southern India and Orissa, many kings used to spend bullion on building temples instead of spending it on developmental programmes. It is said that not even a penny of the total revenue collected over four years in the ancient kingdom of Utkal was spent on developmental programmes. The entire amount was spent on building the Konarka temple. As a monument and an architectural achievement, the Konarka temple is unique. Nevertheless, I hope that the present educated generation of Orissa will deeply analyse the extent to which it was justifiable to build this temple at the cost of food for the impoverished masses of Orissa.

The more that government revenue is spent on developmental programmes – not including the salaries of government employees – the better it is for the country’s economy. This policy will render great service to the masses and lead to increasing socio-economic development. As a result of the constant circulation of capital, national wealth will increase. While the government must think about the bare necessities of government employees, increasing the salaries of government employees by reducing the amount of money spent on public services can never be supported. The more that money is invested in developmental programmes, the better it is.

This policy will also indirectly lead to an increased standard of living for government employees. If any government increases the salaries of government employees without investing money in public services, the market will go out of control. Consequently, government employees, even if they are paid higher salaries, will not be benefited. If the market price of a commodity is five rupees and if the salaries of the government employees are doubled with the intention of providing them greater amenities, will the purchasing capacity of the government employees also be doubled? If they go to market with more money in their pockets they will find that everything costs more. Such an approach is like adding fuel to fire. If the market price of commodities goes sky-high the country will be thrown into the clutches of high inflation.

So, increasing the expenses of a government department at the cost of developmental programmes amounts to committing economic suicide. If production is increased through investment in developmental programmes instead, the purchasing capacity of the people can be increased without increasing their salaries. When purchasing capacity is increased, both government and non-government employees will benefit.

In pure economic terms developmental programmes are those programmes which directly increase national wealth and indirectly support this increase. Programmes which only increase national wealth indirectly, not directly, cannot be regarded as developmental programmes until the minimum requirements of the people are guaranteed.

Multi-Purpose Development Schemes

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 18 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

Words in double square brackets [[ ]] are corrections that did not appear in the printed version.

The forward march of human beings requires an internal approach and an adjustment with external objectivities. That is, it requires an internal, spiritual approach, as well as an external approach which maintains balance, equilibrium and equipoise in the different arenas of our social, economic and cultural life.

Humanity is presently suffering from two problems – one is affluence or bountifulness, and the other is shortages of not only physical but also psychic pabula. Most of the developed countries suffer from bountifulness. If the flow of affluence is regulated, then an adjustment may be made so that physical shortages and psychic deficiencies can be minimized before they become chronic problems. In most countries of the world there is a tendency towards this type of adjustment. Everybody admits that there should be such an adjustment; consequently, you will find hardly any blind capitalism in the world today. Nevertheless, despite this tendency, there is still maladjustment and misutilization of resources in developed countries.

The second problem is shortages of physical and psychic pabula. As every intellectual knows, Marxism is a psychic ailment. Those who suffered from physical shortages or psychic deficiencies were once attracted by the high-sounding gospels of Marxism. Still today, the people living in Marxist countries suffer from these deficiencies because communism itself encourages them.

There is a worsening global situation and humanity is in danger because of these problems. Both the propounders and preachers of capitalism and communism suffer from psychic ailments, and both systems also suffer from physical shortages and psychic defects, although those living under communism are no doubt worse off. The whole world is victimized by capitalism and communism. In capitalism there is misutilization or misallocation of human energy, resources and money, and in communism people do not have free access to different types of resources to ensure their all-round development. The problem is one of social, economic and cultural maladjustment. So what should be done?

There are [hundreds] of millions of hunger-stricken people throughout the world. [[AMURT⁽¹⁾]] must come forward and do something concrete for them – we must give them substantial food, otherwise they will continue to suffer from malnutrition. We must give nutritious food; simply feeding them will not suffice. For instance, giving them sweet potatoes is of no use, since they have got very little food value. Sweet potato has less food value than tapioca. People will still suffer from malnutrition even though their bellies may be full.

In many parts of India, the major portion of China, and certain portions of South America and Africa, people suffer from hunger. The staple food of the people in the Purulia district of West Bengal for four to five months of the year is grass seeds. In major parts of Africa people live on rats and mice. In India, the seeds of grass, in Africa, rats and mice!

In India there are four main areas – east, west, north and south. In the east, there is maximum poverty. In Bengal the per capita position is number thirteen in India. Only seventeen percent of Bihar is developed. In the west, Ambikapur in Sarguja district and the Bilaspur and Baster districts of Madhya Pradesh are poor. In the north, there is Kumayun in Uttar Pradesh, as well as the hilly areas of Nepal. The Mirzapur district of eastern Uttar Pradesh is also poor. Only sixteen percent of Uttar Pradesh is developed. In the south, the poor regions include the tribal areas of Vizag district and the Telengana region in Andhra Pradesh. Tamil Nadu has coastal belts, but its plateau region is not so productive due to shortages of water and lack of a proper irrigation system. While most of Kerala has no shortage of water, there is population pressure and no industry. Water is scarce, however, in the northern border of Kerala and the southern portion of Tamil Nadu. The Malayalam speaking portion has no industry, while the Tamil speaking area has some industry. Kerala is more or less self-sufficient. Dharmapuri is backward, though the rural economic structure of Tamil Nadu is good.

Thus, the poverty belt of India includes Palamu district and Lohardaga in the Ranchi district of Bihar; Kalahandi and Koraput in Orissa; Bilaspur, Baster and Ambikapur in eastern Madhya Pradesh; Mirzapur in eastern Uttar Pradesh; the Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh; and Dharmapuri in Tamil Nadu.

In Orissa, Maharashtra and Ráŕh in West Bengal, farmers sell the wheat and rice they grow and eat coarse grain and grass seeds instead. Consequently, they suffer from severe malnutrition, and as a result, leprosy. Purulia district is one of the main leprosy affected areas of India. Leprosy is mainly caused by malnutrition.

In Southeast Asia, Indonesia and Vietnam are poor, while Malaysia and Singapore are rich. Thailand’s condition is relatively good. In Indonesia, people live mostly on rice; soup is a food of the [[rich]] people. Malnutrition is found throughout almost all of China.

There is not much malnutrition in North America. Mexico, in Central America, is poorer than India, and Honduras is also poor. In South America all the countries are poor. Venezuela is better off than the rest of South America, but unless it makes more effort to become self-sufficient it will face economic difficulty when its petrol runs out. Brazil, which is a large country, and Peru, are the countries which are the worst off. There are also hungry people in Paraguay and Uruguay. In Peru rice is one of the staple foods.

In the Middle East, there is socio-cultural maladjustment in the oil producing countries, even though they have enough wealth.

In Africa, there is much poverty and suffering among large sections of the population. There are hungry people throughout all of Africa. In a few countries, the staple food is rice, but these days rice is mostly for the rich.

Even in Europe, in certain parts of Wales and central Scotland, there is an acute shortage of substantial food. The people live off potatoes, and when the crop fails they suffer from malnutrition.

We must do something concrete for these people, otherwise the hunger of these downtrodden and distressed people will destroy the peace and tranquillity of the entire globe. You must not forget this fact. There should be an immediate influx of food from outside to these malnourished areas.

When you are taking responsibility for the entire globe, solving the problem of malnutrition is also your sacred duty. What is the cause of this problem? The cause is irrational distribution in the economies of the world. The long-term solution to this economic problem is PROUT, but the immediate food shortages themselves must be solved as an urgent necessity. What are you doing about this? You cannot shirk your responsibility. The entire globe is waiting for you. It is the sacred responsibility [[of our AMURT and AMURTEL⁽²⁾ – let them shoulder their]] responsibility.

The only solution to the world-wide problem of malnutrition and of the maladjustment and misallocation of resources is to implement multi-purpose development schemes. Multi-purpose development schemes are based on the degree of poverty in a country and aim to immediately elevate the standard of living of the people and bring about integrated development throughout the world. Such schemes are for the entire globe, and include undertaking temporary and permanent relief and upgrading the standard of education wherever required. In Europe, for example, in Rumania, Albania and the Balkan states we should concentrate on temporary relief; in Portugal on permanent relief; and in Greenland on education. The Basque area of Spain is poor, while Greenland has few people. Work should start in the areas of greatest need and radiate out.

Italy is developed but not highly developed. It has crossed the threshold of a developing country – that is, the threshold of developing and developed. It is more developed than Portugal and almost as developed as Spain. Horticulture, forest resources and terranean wealth can be further developed. Sericulture, especially mulberry silk, can be developed. Oil can be found in the southern portion of Sicily and Sardinia. Italy is potentially rich in paddy production, and it should grow a little bit of wheat. The Po Valley is a paddy growing area. The southern portion of Italy grows Mediterranean fruit. This industry can also be further developed. Large industries such as the oil and steel industries no doubt exist, but other big industries are imported from various countries.

So, how should we proceed? First, to solve the critical problems of the world, all-round service should be carried out in all the countries of the world without a single exception. But special stress should be given to solving the problems of all communist countries, as well as those capitalist countries where people are exploited because of physical and psychic shortages. These countries, or some portions of countries which fall into this category, should be selected as special places and receive special service because of shortages such as food.

Rendering all-round service to the people is an extension of the multi-purpose development schemes. Different types of service, both extensive and intensive, have to be done in all the poor countries. Extensive service means that service must be provided down to the village level, while intensive service means that as many people as possible must be benefited. This programme is necessary due to defective economic management in many parts of the world, and has nothing to do with party politics.

We have to help people in their local areas in times of calamity and distress. We can also take help from others who want to serve people selflessly. Mass feeding and cheap kitchens are appropriate everywhere, as are other items such as the distribution of clothes, medicines and school supplies, and special housing schemes for the poor, according to the situation. If you cannot enter a country immediately to render service, you can go to the border and the people will jump over.

We have shown by rendering all-round service the type of society governments should establish to elevate the standard of living of the common people. In this programme, essential items are provided to the poorest and most needy people in each locality. If any government follows the spirit of this programme it will be just like following our Proutistic system.

Thus, for the all-round progress of society, we are to select all communist countries and the poor undeveloped and developing countries for this purpose. But as I have already said, we must not neglect the developed countries because they also suffer from shortages. By adopting such an extended and expanded approach to service, good people can do something for the suffering and downtrodden humanity. You will have to elevate the standard of both the downtrodden mass and the down moving mass. You should chalk out a plan and materialize it as soon as possible.

One of the most important reasons for psychic ailments, defects and deformities is the lack of proper education. Education means proper psychic training and exercise. This training is initially imparted by teaching literacy. That is, it is done through teaching the letters of the alphabet: A-B-C, ka-kha-ga, etc. You can see that in most of the countries in the world – in almost the entire world – the vast percentage of the downtrodden people are illiterate. They are lagging behind in the realm of education. Everywhere, especially in Muslim countries, you will observe that the major portion of the population is downtrodden. Even where there is no shortage in wealth, in Muslim countries and certain other countries, the people are still in a downtrodden condition.

So, education is a must – education is mandatory – and you should do something to spread education in each and every village throughout the world. You should do something clear and concrete in the realm of education. Proper education means elevating the standard of downtrodden humanity.

Questions and Answers on Economics – Excerpt A

Published in:
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

1) Question: What do we want, increase in per capita income or increase in purchasing capacity?

Answer: According to PROUT, increases in per capita income are not a sufficiently reliable and scientific index to determine the standard and progress of a particular socio-economic unit. Rather, this approach is misleading and deceitful, because it refers to a simple mathematical calculation of total national income divided by total population. This does not give the correct picture of the standard of living of the people of a particular socio-economic unit as the wealth disparity in society is concealed. Per capita income shows the mean and not the variation of income distribution. If inflation is also considered, the reliability of per capita income is further reduced.

Purchasing capacity, on the other hand, is the real index of how people’s economic needs can be met by their income. All PROUT’s plans and programmes in the socio-economic sphere should be aimed at increasing the purchasing capacity of the people. PROUT stresses increasing purchasing capacity and not per capita income.

Per capita income is not a proper indication of the increase in the standard of living of the people because while people may have very high incomes they may not be able to purchase the necessities of life. If the per capita income is low and people have great purchasing capacity they are much better off. So, purchasing capacity and not per capita income is the true measure of economic prosperity. Everyone’s requirements should be within their pecuniary periphery or purchasing capacity.

2) Question: Shall we support the recent cry for more power to the states? What is our policy?

Answer: We support economic decentralization. So, the amount of power which directly concerns economic decentralization should be in the hands of the states or the concerned lower level governments. Otherwise, how can they materialize the economic power that is vested in them by decentralization?

3) Question: What is the difference between agrico-industries and agro-industries?

Answer: Agrico-industries represent a set of pre-harvesting industries. Agrico-industries directly or indirectly promote the rapid qualitative and quantitative growth of agricultural products. Agro-industries comprise those post-harvesting industries which depend on agricultural production.

Questions and Answers on Economics – Excerpt B

Published in:
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

4) Question: Should development schemes for the all-round elevation of an agricultural country or region and an industrial country or region be the same in theory or different from each other?

Answer: Development in the sense of all-round elevation is the summum bonum of economic activity. That is, development means integrated, compact and multi-purpose development.

Principles and theories remain unchanged although policies may vary. The agricultural portion of theory, the agricultural style of theory, should be the same. However, since circumstances vary, the approach or the application of the theory will certainly differ.

Until now the structural locus standi of agriculture has not been properly developed. In fact, all aspects of the structural side of agriculture have been neglected.

According to PROUT, agriculture should be given the status of industry. In industry raw material costs, labour costs, interest on loans, depreciation, maintenance costs, profit, the rate of out-turn, etc., are fixed and included in costing. In agriculture this has not been done, so produce is usually uneconomically priced. Farmers are forced to sell their produce at low prices due to the pressure of circumstances. This is known as a “distress sale”. If agriculture is treated as an industry, all the conditions of industry should apply to agriculture. When this occurs farmers will not be neglected, and there will not be any differentiation in the style of development and costing of agriculture and industry.

For example, Orissa produces a single crop of paddy per year. No proper irrigation exists so there is always a dearth of water, consequently peasants remain poor. But this poverty must be removed. If we recognize agriculture as an industry in Orissa, costing and pricing will be different. Costing will include the cost of seeds, labour, raw materials, pension funds, storage or inventory, depreciation, sinking funds, etc. Farmers should also include up to fifteen percent profit on their produce as part of their costs. Thus, the value of agricultural produce as an industrial output will be properly calculated.

In a Proutistic economy buyers will have to purchase agricultural produce at this newly calculated price. This is the proper approach to integrated development. In such a system, farmers will not be exploited or put to needless hardship.

Answer: In the subtle economic sense, the value of wealth is the real wealth. Wealth, if not properly defined, may mean only riches. But the value of wealth is to be measured in terms of its capacity to purchase commodities. That is, the purchasing capacity of wealth is its real value. This real value of wealth has not yet been properly understood in numerical terms by economists.

Questions and Answers on Economics – Excerpt C

Published in:
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

6) Question: What should be the system of share distribution in cooperatives?

Answer: PROUT advocates the phase-wise socialization of agricultural land which should be managed by farmers cooperatives. In the initial phase of transition to cooperative management, land shares should be in the hands of those who are landholders. That is, initially the shares in agricultural or farmers cooperatives should be distributed on the basis of the land vested in the cooperative. When the cooperative system is fully implemented in the agriculture sector, there will not be any distinction between landholders and non-landholders, as all members of the cooperative will be collectively responsible for the management of the land. However, this stage can only be achieved after the proper psychological preparation of the people.

In the cooperative system there should not be any scope for interest earning shares; that is, there should not be profit earning shares in cooperatives. Rather, shares should be according to the production of the land. If there are profit earning shares in farmers or agricultural cooperatives, then these shares will be sold in the share market, capitalists will buy the shares, the rate of share prices will fluctuate according to share market prices, and cooperatives will become commercial enterprises.

Similarly, in industrial cooperatives there should be dividend earning shares and not profit earning shares as in bank interest, otherwise these cooperatives will also become commercial enterprises. If there are profit earning shares, the spirit of the cooperative system will be destroyed and cooperatives will go into the hands of the capitalists.

So, there must not be any preferential shares in any farmers, producers or consumers cooperatives, only dividend shares. Shareholders with preferential shares earn a fixed amount of interest from their shares regardless of whether the enterprise makes a loss or profit.

Preferential shares are like the sonja system in agriculture. In the sonja system, sharecroppers get a fixed amount from landowners when they initially agree to cultivate their land. This is given regardless of the amount produced by the sharecropper, even if there is crop failure. Dividend shares earn a dividend which is defined as a return on the basis of the net profit earned by the enterprise.

Shareholders must be people of high morality. In cooperatives, voting rights should be on an individual basis and not on the basis of the number of shares a person holds. In capitalist countries shares can be purchased. Democracy in capitalist countries is a farce because votes can be purchased and poor people cannot fight elections.

Neither the commune system nor capitalism can solve human problems. Only the cooperative system can solve all sorts of social, cultural and national problems.

Answer: This type of cooperative will not be in the arena of producers or consumers cooperatives. Service cooperatives are a subtle type of cooperative coming within the arena of cultural cooperatives.

Let us take the example of doctors. Doctors should start service cooperatives. These cooperatives may also be called “physicians’ service cooperatives”. Suppose a doctor is not able to open his or her own practice, he or she may form a service cooperative with five or ten other doctors. Such a cooperative is an intellectual service cooperative. Doctors who have little capital and cannot afford to establish their own practices can also work in this type of cooperative. Such a system will solve the unemployment problem of doctors. In addition, doctors can start research through these cooperatives, although a doctor’s job is ninety-nine percent practical and hardly one percent theoretical.

Besides service cooperatives, there are several other types of cooperatives which include farmers cooperatives, producers cooperatives, consumers cooperatives, banking cooperatives, housing cooperatives and family annuity cooperatives.

The day is fast approaching when intellectuality will rule the earth. The commune system has failed – we do not want communistic mania or philosophical phobia. Intellectually developed human beings will rule the earth, and for this the cooperative system is indispensable.

8) Question: If the land is bountiful and the per capita income is very high, does it mean that the all-round micropsychic conations or the all-round micropsychic aspirations of the people are fully quenched?

Answer: No. To quench the all-round micropsychic longings of the people, there must be the following:

a) Psycho-spiritual education. There can be balkanization of society if there is no psycho-spiritual education. b) Rule by moralists. c) Ever increasing purchasing capacity. If the per capita income is Rs. 50,000 and the price of the quintal of rice is Rs. 80,000, the condition of the people will be very bad. d) A balanced socio-economic structure.

9) Question: Is barter trade suitable for undeveloped or developing countries?

Answer: It is suitable for both undeveloped and developing countries, especially where the number of surplus goods is limited or few in number. Bangladesh, for example, has a surplus in jute and hide. For that country, barter trade is suitable.

Answer: In capitalism production is for profit. The amount of the bonus is usually fixed. The actual profit is hidden from the workers and goes directly to the owner, so workers do not get any incentive to work harder and better. In communism production is for the state. Workers do not feel oneness with the job so there is little incentive to work. In PROUT production is for consumption – our industrial system will be based on consumption. Profit will be minimized so capitalists will not get the scope to exploit the workers. There will also be rational distribution of wealth.

The time involved in the production of commodities can be viewed from three angles – the time allotted to complete some work; the time taken to complete some work; and the time saved to complete some work. In the bonus system the calculation of the bonus is on the basis of the time saved, and the money value of this calculation is given to the worker. This is the incentive in the bonus system.

In the piece work system the incentive is calculated in a different way. Suppose you are manufacturing machines. The labour, etc., involved in the cost of production is set, so the market price will be the cost of production plus the profit. That is, price equals cost plus profit. The profit or part of it is distributed among those who manufactured the machines. This is their incentive. This is how incentives work in the piece work system. As workers get more incentive, they try to manufacture more machines. This is not the case in state capitalism because workers get fixed incentives which become part of their wages.

Incentives should encourage greater work and better quality work, so they should be directly linked to production. If this approach is followed, the per capita income and the standard of living of the workers will automatically increase.

Economic Exploitation of Bengal

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 19 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

official source: Prout in a Nutshell Part 19 (as "Three Forms of Economic Exploitation")

According to Karl Marx, the creation of surplus value is the source of economic exploitation. Capitalists convert the surplus value into money value and that is how they accumulate profit. After analysing the capitalist economy, Marx reasoned that all profit is exploitation because profit means the denial of the legitimate right of the working class to the wealth they produce. Consequently, profit is nothing but the exploitation of labour. Marx concluded that the creation of surplus value will stop only when economic exploitation ends.

All communist states, including the Soviet Union, China and Vietnam, have rejected Marx’s theory of exploitation. According to these countries, the creation of surplus value in the economy is an indispensable part of national prosperity. In repudiation of Marxist ideas, profit is not considered exploitation. If Marx made the first attempt to analyse and define exploitation, then it must be said that his work is not free from defects. This is because Marx tried to interpret exploitation only from the economic point of view.

According to PROUT, economic exploitation involves the unrestricted plunder of the physical and psychic labour of a particular community together with the natural resources in their local area. In PROUT’s view, exploitation is not confined to only economic exploitation, but includes psychic and spiritual exploitation as well.

Economic exploitation has various forms and includes colonial exploitation, imperialist exploitation and fascist exploitation. There are similarities and dissimilarities in both the principles and characters of these forms of exploitation. Let us examine each of these three forms of exploitation by taking the example of Bengal.

In the case of colonial exploitation, the exploiters first capture a market and then gain control of all the raw materials available in that area through monopoly rights. They produce finished goods out of the raw materials in their own factories within their own region, and then sell the finished goods to the people in the occupied market. Thus, they get double the opportunities to misappropriate wealth – the exploiters deceive the local population while procuring their raw materials at cheap rates, and then they sell their finished products in the same markets at exorbitant prices. By capturing the local market, the colonial exploiters succeed in totally destroying the local industrial system.

The first part of British rule in Bengal was a period of colonial exploitation. The British capitalists, in order to capture the markets of Bengal, systematically destroyed all Bengal’s industry and forced the local manufacturers and skilled labourers to work in British owned factories.

The British East India Company used to collect raw materials by looting and intimidating the local people. It contracted a pledge from those who worked in cottage industries that they would buy raw materials only from the company, and sell finished products only to the company. The company used to sell raw materials at high rates, and buy finished products at twenty-five percent below their actual market price. The manufacturers who refused to agree to the terms of the company were handcuffed and publicly flogged, and the thumbs of many weavers who resisted the demands of the company were chopped off to destroy their capacity to weave fine cloth. Because of this kind of oppression, the weavers of Bengal could not compete with the weaving industry which was being developed in Manchester.

Within ten years after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, most of the important industries in Bengal such as silk, cotton, sugar, salt, colour dyes, machine parts and shipbuilding had been systematically destroyed. The manufacturers and skilled labourers who had been employed in various industries for generations were uprooted from their natural source of livelihood and pushed towards agriculture. The inevitable result was the catastrophic famine of 1770. Thus, Bengal was converted into a supplier of raw materials and a market for British products. This type of economic exploitation is called “colonial exploitation”.

Even thirty years after Indian independence, the vestiges of colonial exploitation have not been obliterated from Bengal. Rather, exploitation by the Indian capitalists has been deepened and widened. These Indian capitalists are outsiders who have not identified their own socio-economic interests with the interests of the local area. Today they look upon West Bengal and its adjoining areas as merely a source of raw materials. These capitalists purchase the agricultural, mineral and forestry resources of Bengal at cheap rates and convert them into manufactured goods in their own factories in Gujarat, the Punjab, Maharashtra and Rajasthan, and then sell the finished products in the Bengal market at high prices.

Almost all items of daily use in Bengal are manufactured outside Bengal, but sold in the West Bengal market. At the same time, Bengal’s own industries have either been paralysed or destroyed so that the goods produced in Bengal can never compete with those of the Indian capitalists produced outside Bengal. This is the reason that West Bengal does not get the chance to establish new industrial enterprises. The Punjab and Harayana have been turned into monopoly centres for the leather industry, but strangely, in both these states, hides are scarcely available. Industrialists from these states procure animal skins from the forests of Tarai and Duars in North Bengal and the deltaic region of the Sundarbans in the south of the state, and sell their finished leather products in Bengal. West Bengal has no hide industry to supply finished products to its own market. Only a small percentage of the leather shoes produced in Batanagar is supplied to the West Bengal market, and the largest percentage is exported to foreign markets. The same situation prevails in the sports goods industry. Needless to say, the owners of most of the essential industries in West Bengal are outsiders. To them West Bengal is merely a colony to acquire raw materials as well as a vast market for the sale of finished goods which are manufactured in their own regions. All these outsiders are guided by one psychology: “As we have come to a foreign land, let us try to loot as much as we can.”

Next comes imperialist exploitation. In this case the exploiters fully exercise their political and economic power for their own economic exploitation. The second half of British rule in India was characterized by imperialist exploitation. In fact, the imperialist exploitation of Bengal can be traced to the rein of the Mughal Emperor Akbar about 400 years ago. There is a reference in the book Ain-E-Akbari [The Laws of Akbar] that Bengal had to supply 23,301 cavalrymen, 801,159 infantrymen, 4,400 ships, 4,260 cannons and 108 elephants to the Mughal army. Bengal also had to pay a large tribute to meet Akbar’s military expenses, supply provisions to the Mughal army, and pay taxes to offset the losses incurred in Akbar’s campaigns. And when Aurangzeb deployed a large Mughal army to suppress the Marathas in the Deccan, Bengal again had to supply a large part of the provisions and running expenses of his army. In the process, the economy of Bengal was completely drained and the people impoverished. As a result of the Mughal exploitation, Bengal was confronted by a series of economic disasters and famines, and the Mughal rulers, with the help of their functionaries, ruthlessly suppressed all local revolts.

The Mughal misrule of Bengal was closely followed by the British colonial and imperialist exploitation. When Clive left India, he took away millions of rupees in cash. The East India Company and its employees took a bribe of thirty million rupees to carry out the exploitation of Bengal, and the British officers looted and plundered a vast amount of wealth from the palaces of the indigenous rulers.

As a result of the devastating famine of 1770, about ten million people died, including artisans, skilled labourers and farmers. Before India entered the nineteenth century, all of Bengal’s important industries had been destroyed. Dhaka, a most prosperous city, was a famous weaving and commercial centre, but it lost its pre-eminence and the population declined because the people were uprooted from their traditional means of livelihood. The unemployed skilled labourers left Dhaka and travelled to the countryside in search of new occupations, and finally took to agriculture. Naturally, these new workers became landless labourers and the agricultural sector became overcrowded. This was how important industrial centres such as Murshidabad and Pandua lost their economic prosperity. Innumerable unemployed youth were created in the industrial sector of Bengal’s economy, and they had no alternative but to resort to agriculture.

After completely destroying the industries of Bengal, the British capitalists turned their attention to the rural sector. In 1779 the British colonialists forced the Bengali peasants to cultivate indigo in their paddy lands because there was a great demand for colour dyes in the European market. The problem was that once indigo was planted it took two to three years to mature, and in this time no other crops could be cultivated. The peasants refused to cultivate indigo instead of paddy, and consequently they were subjected to inhuman torture and oppression. This continued for eighty years, then the people of Bengal revolted and the cultivation of indigo stopped.

Along with the cultivation of indigo, the British merchants cast their greedy eyes on Bengal’s jute and tea industries. In order to further increase their profits, they began to exploit these two commodities. In 1793 Lord Cornwallis tried to impose British feudalism on the rural economy of Bengal through the system of permanent settlements. According to this system, zamindars were armed with enormous economic power. They were given the authority to impose revenue taxes on land, evict farmers, arbitrarily sell farmers’ movable and immovable property, and if necessary prosecute farmers and sentence them to death. In exchange for all these privileges, the landlords had to pay a fixed amount of money to the British Raj at the end of each year. If that amount was not deposited in the treasury at the appointed time, the landholdings of the landlord were auctioned. Naturally no landlord wanted his land auctioned, so regardless of the climatic conditions or the size of the crops, he forced the farmers to pay the required taxes. Besides paying their government revenue, the landlords always tried to make a profit, so they collected more than the prescribed amount from the farmers.

The landlords, however, encountered certain difficulties when they tried to collect tax revenues directly by moving from place to place. Consequently, the system of collecting taxes through agents was introduced. These agents gave the responsibility for collecting taxes to another set of people, thus between the landlord and the farmer there were agents of different strata. The agents at the lowest stratum used to deduct a certain percentage of the tax revenue and give the rest to the higher level agents. Thus, the farmers had to bear the brunt of this enormous financial burden. Moreover, the agents did not issue any receipts, so there was no limit to the exploitation and looting of the farmers who were impoverished beyond their means.

Besides the landlords and their agents, another group of exploiters emerged who took advantage of the poverty of the farmers. These were the moneylenders, who lent money to the farmers at exorbitant rates of interest. The farmers were forced to take loans which they could never repay, so they mortgaged their lands. Eventually the moneylenders became the owners of the farmers’ lands, and the farmers were thus converted into landless labourers. Such a huge population of landless labourers was found only in Bengal.

The complement to economic exploitation is political oppression. British political exploitation reduced the number of Bengalees by dividing Greater Bengal into numerous fragments and annexing those areas to adjoining states. The people of Bengal were deprived of the natural resources of those regions which were later formed into Assam, Bihar and Orissa. The ethnic Bengalees of those areas, after only a few generations, became separated from the main stream of Bengali life and culture. The British did not apply this principle of “divide and rule” to any other part of India. Just to perpetuate their economic exploitation in Bengal, the British resorted to political oppression. Bengalees had experienced the tyranny of highly placed people, but they had never before experienced oppression that completely stifled their means of commerce and livelihood, and almost destroyed their very existence.

In 1947, when the British left India, another era of exploitation by Indian imperialists started in the wake of the partition of Bengal. Despite the long period of British exploitation, in the initial phase after independence the state of Bengal was more advanced than any other state in India, and many Bengali industrialists had developed. The outsiders started to systematically eliminate the Bengali industrialists from specific areas of trade and industry. This methodical economic oppression of Bengal started immediately after India attained freedom.

During this period, West Bengal’s paddy land was converted into jute production in order to earn more foreign exchange from jute. The farmers were losers on two fronts. First, their income from paddy was totally stopped, and secondly, they were not given the market value of the jute they produced. The outsiders benefited in two ways. They exported much of their jute to foreign countries to earn foreign exchange, and they supplied rice to Bengal produced in their own areas. At that time there were approximately eighty jute mills in West Bengal, all owned by outsiders who made a total profit of hundreds of millions of rupees per annum. The central government earned a similar amount by exporting jute, and another few hundred million rupees as taxes, duties, etc., on jute products. About twenty percent of India’s total foreign exchange came from Bengal’s jute industry, but Bengal’s indigenous jute farmers were deprived of any profit from jute production.

West Bengal earns no percentage of the foreign exchange acquired from its natural resources. The central government sells cotton to Maharashtra and Gujarat at comparatively low prices, whereas the farmers of Bengal are forced to buy the same commodities at high prices. Naturally the cost of producing cotton cloth and hand-spun clothes is higher in Bengal than in other states. The same thing applies in the case of sugar. Furthermore, Bengal has to sell coal and iron ore to other parts of the country without making any profit, and it has to buy edible oil and other essential food items at extra cost.

Due to this exploitation by outsiders, the economic structure of Bengal has been shattered and a large percentage of Bengal’s population now lives below the poverty line. Tens of millions of rupees are drained out of West Bengal every month by outsiders, and many of Bengal’s own industrial enterprises have been destroyed. The important industrial sectors together with trade and commerce are now in the hands of outsiders. Millions of able-bodied young Bengalees are unemployed, whereas the non-Bengali capitalists employ much of their work-force from outside the state.

The final and most dangerous form of economic exploitation is fascist exploitation. In order to canvass national support to justify their exploitation, the imperialists popularize the theory of nationalism. They portray their exploitation as rational and constitutional and based on the national interest. The British imperialists, in order to legitimize their exploitation, embraced nationalist theory. Following the example of the British, Mussolini of Italy and Hitler of Germany moved along the same path. When communist imperialism was established after the Second World War, the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin propagated the concept of the Slavic supremacy. Likewise, the Chinese leader Mao Zedong built up Chinese superiority.

As soon as an imperialist power is transformed into a fascist power, it spreads out its tentacles to psychically and culturally oppress a vanquished people. To perpetuate unhindered economic exploitation, psychic exploitation starts almost simultaneously. Where psychic exploitation is used to further economic exploitation, it is called “psycho-economic exploitation”.

At the very outset, the fascist exploiters select a weak community which inhabits a region rich in natural resources. The fascists socially and culturally uproot the victimized community by imposing a foreign language and culture on them. Because the local people cannot easily express their individual and collective feelings and sentiments in a foreign language, they develop a defeatist psychology and inferiority complex with respect to the exploiters. This defeatist psychology destroys the natural spiritedness and will to fight of the local people, and the fascists skillfully utilize this golden opportunity. The primary interest of the fascist exploiters is to gradually suck the vitality of the local community so that they can pillage and plunder their natural resources, but if necessary they will even obliterate the local community from the face of the earth.

During the British rule of India, the Bengalees were the victims of various types of rapacious psychic exploitation by the British fascists. The British adopted several methods of psychic exploitation. For instance, the British exploiters, obsessed with crushing freedom struggles and national revolts, tried to destroy the revolutionary spirit of the Bengalees. To achieve this objective they also started psycho-economic exploitation. Besides this, in order to reduce the Bengali population, they divided Bengal into different regions and annexed them to the adjoining states. A large section of the population became separated from the mainstream of Bengali life and identified with the cultural heritage of the newly formed states. The same approach is being followed even now.

The Indian capitalists followed the example of the British. Their exploitative psychology was clearly manifest in the refugee policy. By the end of 1949 the rehabilitation problem of the refugees who came from West Pakistan had been completely solved, but the refugees who came from East Pakistan were subject to an altogether different policy. The Bengali refugee problem was kept in abeyance. Many Bengali refugees, by dint of their self-confidence, physical capabilities and hard work, still struggle for survival in Tripura, Assam, Bihar and Orissa, while millions of poor and helpless refugees continue to live on the streets in the towns and cities of Bengal, wandering aimlessly in search of food and shelter.

The plan to reduce the size of the Bengali population is being implemented through the systematic destruction of the vitality of the Bengali people. The most powerful means of expression of a people’s collective psychic power is their language and literature. Hence, to try and uproot a people from their culture is a special form of psychic exploitation. The cultural suppression of Bengalees throughout eastern India is rampant. To undermine the morality and integrity of Bengal’s national character, lewd films and books have been spread throughout the state like ulcerous wounds.

In the factories and the rural production centres, the capitalist exploitation of India continues unabated, and the landholders, as the last vestiges of a feudalistic social order, perpetrate their exploitation in the villages. The capitalists and landlords carry on their exploitation hand-in-hand. The survival and social security of the landless labourers depends solely on the whims of the landlords, who can expel the labourers at any time on any pretext.

The exploitation by capitalists and landlords is accompanied by the exploitation by moneylenders. In the rural economy they lend money to the farmers and rural peasants, and are present in nearly every village and hamlet of West Bengal. Where the landlords are not physically present, their loyal agents are very active. The moneylenders have nothing to do with the land – they merely give loans to the poor farmers at high interest. Sometimes poor farmers cannot afford to procure farming implements, hence they are compelled to take loans from the moneylenders. If a moneylender gives one hundred rupees to a farmer, the farmer will have to repay two hundred rupees with interest, but the moneylender does not take back the loan in cash. Instead he realizes the amount in kind in the form of paddy, potatoes, etc., at cheap rates at the time of the harvest. The poor farmer, under the pressure of circumstances, has to accept this unwelcome system. He is a double loser – first, he has to pay more than double the amount of the original loan, and secondly, this amount is paid in kind at the rate of the harvest price of the crop, which is naturally very cheap. This whole process is conducted through agents, who also take their profit. Thus, the peasants and farmers of India are deprived of all their agricultural produce in four to five months of the year to repay the moneylenders, so for the remaining seven to eight months they have to approach the moneylenders again for fresh loans. At first they mortgage their implements, and then they are forced to part with their land. When the amount of the loans with compound interest increases to the point where the interest and the mortgage is equal to the price of their land, the moneylenders confiscate the land of the farmers. Consequently, the farmers get evicted from their land and move from village to village, living on the streets as beggars.

The direct representatives of the capitalist exploiters in the rural economy are the middlemen. They take advantage of the poverty and distress of the farmers and force them to depend on the capitalists for their production. For example, in West Bengal, Calcutta is the main centre of the capitalists, but of course they have subsidiary centres in various parts of the state. For instance, they have centres in Siliguri in North Bengal, Sainthia in Birbhum district, Purulia town in Purulia district and Midnapore town in Midnapore district. From these centres the capitalists, through their agents and middlemen, control the rural economy of West Bengal. The farmers depend on these middlemen not only to procure farm implements, but also to sell their agricultural produce. They also take advantage of the illiteracy of the simple uneducated farmers, collect their signatures or thumb prints for a larger loan, and pay them less than the market value of their produce.

Indian society is basically capitalistic, and the administrative system is a capitalist dominated democracy. It is the capitalists who control and direct the social, economic and political systems of India. The problem of how to remain in power is the most important issue for every political party that comes to power in an election. When political interest is of paramount importance, naturally the government will frame laws to safeguard the interests of the capitalist exploiters. The responsibility of upholding the interests of the exploiters in the name of law and order devolves onto the bureaucracy and police. The political leaders merely engage in internal bickering over their share of the ill-gotten gains.

India’s peasants, under the enormous weight of the exploitation by capitalists, landlords, moneylenders and corrupt politicians, together with the crippling burden of poverty, have been pushed to the brink of death. At any cost, the peasants will have to shoulder the responsibility of freeing themselves from the jaws of destruction. But what is the way out for them? Is sanguinary revolution the surest way of attaining freedom? Is there any other way out? In my opinion, if the path of bloodshed can be avoided by some means or other, and if the exploiters can be brought back to their senses, that would be the most preferable option. But to do this the following requirements would have to be fulfilled.

First, a decentralized economy which replaces the current centralized economy must be introduced. Economic planning should be based on block-level planning and include every village. This is the only way to put an end to colonial, imperialist and fascist exploitation.

Secondly, in every stratum of the economy, the cooperative system must be expanded so that no one can take an undue share of the collective wealth produced by the industrial and agricultural labourers.

Thirdly, moneylending by private capitalists should be banned and provisions must be made to pay loans in advance to the farmers through the banks. This will eradicate the exploitation by moneylenders and political cadres.

Fourthly, the floating population of any state must be either settled where it is living, or made to leave that area and return to its original region. It will have to choose either option.

The progress of history can never be reversed – the current of destiny can never be resisted. The elevated and benevolent intellect is the solution to all human problems.

Trade and Barter in Ancient Bengal – Excerpt A

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 12 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

from “Kray”
Shabda Cayaniká Part 10

The meaning of the Sanskrit root verb krii is “exchange”. An exchange may be undertaken through either money or commodities. Suppose I give someone a kilogram of rice and I get two kilograms of vegetables in exchange. This is called a “purchase”. Again, suppose I give someone some cash and in exchange I get a certain amount of vegetables, say spinach. Both these transactions come within the scope of “purchases”.

In ancient Bengal, the exchange of commodities through barter was more popular than exchange through money. In a village market near Bolpur in Birbhum district, I once noticed a carpenter who came to sell yokes and ploughs. He returned home with a brass container in exchange for a yoke. In reply to my question, “How much did it cost you?” he said, “I got the container in exchange for my yoke.”

The practice of the mutual exchange of commodities in foreign trade is called “barter trade”. In foreign trade those countries which have a large volume of very few commodities to sell but many commodities to buy will find barter trade profitable. Otherwise their reserves of gold bullion may get exhausted very quickly. Barter trade is advantageous for countries like Indonesia, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Kampuchea (Kamboja in Sanskrit) and Tibet.

Ancient Bengal had a large number of commodities to sell but very few to buy, yet the Bengali merchants were fond of barter. (In ancient Bengal much barter was conducted by the Gandhabańic and Suvarńabańic communities, but other merchants also took part.) The reason for this preference for barter was that Bengal had a highly developed ship industry. The Bengali carpenters and fishermen were very proficient in marine industries. The merchants used to take their commodities overseas in order to sell them. Had they carried on their business with money, they would have had to sail their large ships back empty. But as they were engaged in barter, they also returned with commodities. This was one of the main reasons for the popularity of barter in Bengal in those days. Regarding the flourishing barter trade of Bengal, it has been said,

Kurauṋga badale lavauṋga nibo kumkum badale chuyá
Gáchphal badale jáyphal pábo baheŕár badale guvá.

[We shall accept cloves in exhange for stag. We will accept paste for pollen. We will accept hot spices in exchange for fruit. We shall accept medicinal fruits in exchange for nuts.]

The poet Mukunda Rám Cakravartii was a man of Ráŕh in Bengal. In those days, the people of Ráŕh used to send only the surplus commodities overseas for sale, and import only those commodities which were necessary for the people of Ráŕh, such as cloves, medicinal fruit and betel. Bengalees exported very fine rice (badsha bhog – rice fit for the consumption of monarchs used for preparing special rice dishes) from Birbhum, Samantabhum, Senbhum, Mallabhum, Manbhum, etc., in western Ráŕh; and muslin from Visnupur. Large quantities of black woollen blankets, fine sal furniture, Bengal gram, cotton cloth, sugar, raw sugar, copper, copper goods, mustard oil and chillies were exported from different parts of Bengal to Southeast Asia, Egypt and Europe. In exchange for these commodities, which required a large space in their ships, Bengali merchants used to bring back merchandise from overseas countries. In exchange for exports which required very little space, Bengali merchants used to bring back gold coins.

In Bengal the Sinhalpatan, Tamralipta and Chattagram or Chatigram ports were very famous for trading in imports and exports. Dhumghat, Berachampa, Mahisadal, Jiivankhali (Genyokhali-Miirjapur), Nalchiti and Jhalkathi were medium-sized ports which were also used for imports and exports. This shows that ancient Bengal conducted extensive trade and barter trade.

Trade and Barter in Ancient Bengal – Excerpt B

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 3 Part 12 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

from Shabda Cayaniká Part 11

In very ancient times, that is, in the Rg Vedic period, civilization was very backward. In that age there was no such thing as buying and selling in the strict sense of the term. The system of exchange that was in vogue in those days can best be called “barter”. For instance, people used to give some barley to someone (in those days people were not acquainted with wheat or rice). In exchange they would get a container. Again, in exchange for a sieve, someone would get some lentils. (In those days people were not acquainted with cow pea. They were more acquainted with legumes than with Bengal grams.) We can surmise that this system of exchange continued for a long time.

Later, people began to feel some practical inconvenience because they were often not able to get the items they badly needed, and there was no ready market to sell the commodities that people produced. Under the circumstances, people converted the commodities for exchange into some kind of standard wealth to be used as needed. Thus, they began to think of media of exchange.

In India, the first medium of exchange used was sea shells. These sea shells were the first coins. The most ancient root verb for the exchange of commodities was krii, conjugated as kriińiite. But when sea shells were first introduced as the medium of exchange, people felt the need to distinguish this new type of transaction from ordinary barter transactions. So when a transaction would be effected through an exchange of commodities, the root verb krii (with the conjugation kriińiite) continued to be used. But when a transaction would be effected through the medium of sea shells – the system known today in English as “buying” (“to purchase” can mean to get something through barter, but “to buy” can only mean to get something with money) – though the same root verb was used, it was conjugated as kriińáte. Thus, towards the end of the Vedic Age the root verb krii became ubhayapadii, conjugated in both the above ways. Páńini, the first grammarian in the world, recognized the word ubhayapadii. Later grammarians followed his lead.

From the Gupta Age onwards barter trade between different countries continued, but in towns and cities it was greatly reduced, while the buying and selling of commodities with money greatly increased. The use of metal coins began to replace sea shells as media in an improved system of exchange. Much later still, paper notes were introduced in China. Since the Gupta Age, buying and selling has mostly been undertaken through monetary exchange.

The Sanskrit word mudrá became “token” in English, meaning “something which is represented by a medium”. The inner meaning of the word “coin” is also token.

Economic Self-Sufficiency for Bengal

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 20 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

official source: Prout in a Nutshell Part 20 (as “The Socio-Economic Potential of Bengal”)

The poorest districts of Bengal are Bankura and Purulia – the economic condition of these districts is the worst in the state. Here the people are so poor that they live on grass seeds for three or four months of the year. Other districts such as Nadia, Murshidabad, Jalpaiguri, Coochbehar and Karimganj are better off economically.

To make all of Bangalistan economically self-sufficient, two things are important – self-sufficiency in the production of the minimum requirements of life, and the large-scale production of cash crops and non-agricultural products. Both are of paramount importance if the people of Bangalistan are to prosper. Minimum requirements include the provision of adequate food, clothing, housing, education and medical treatment. To guarantee these minimum requirements, there must be self-sufficiency in the production of staple food items, cloth, housing materials, educational equipment and medicines. In addition, cash crops and non-agricultural products must be produced profitably. Let us discuss each item to examine how the people of Bangalistan can become economically self-sufficient.

The main obstacles to self-sufficiency in food production in Bangalistan are the scarcity of rain in the winter and the problem of drainage in the rainy season. Bengal often receives a lot of rainfall during the monsoon, but that is only for six to eight weeks of the year. Due to large-scale deforestation, the amount of rainfall has substantially decreased. In comparison to the needs of Bengal, there is now a shortage of rainfall that hampers the production of crops. The rivers do not have plenty of water, and the irrigation system does not function well. For want of rain in the winter, the winter and summer crops suffer terribly. Due to the defective drainage system, the river water is not utilized for the production of food crops.

To combat these kinds of adversities, the irrigation system must be thoroughly overhauled. Where there is a continuous scarcity of rainfall in Bengal, particularly in the Ráŕh area, there should be maximum emphasis on shift and lift irrigation, tank irrigation and small-scale river-valley projects. Simultaneously, the rivulets and canals should be properly utilized and the drainage problem should be completely controlled. If the irrigation problem is solved properly, abundant crops can be harvested four times a year. For example, the aman, boro and áus varieties of paddy can be grown in rotation throughout the year. In ninety days one rice crop can be grown.

In Japan there is enormous population pressure. In British India, Tripura, Noakhali, Comilla, Chandpur and Brahmanberia were overpopulated. The population density in Japan today is much greater than in those areas at that time, nevertheless Japan has been able to attain self-sufficiency in food production.

The sticky soil of Ráŕh can hold water for a long time, and such soil is ideal for constructing tanks, ponds, reservoirs and dams. Naturally pisciculture can be developed because water can be conserved in the soil. Moreover, sticky soil is ideal for aman paddy. In some places in North Bengal there is sticky soil, while in other places there is sticky sandy (doánsh) soil, which is approximately one-third sticky and two-thirds sandy, as in Dinajpur district. Of all the districts in North Bengal, Dinajpur is the most ideal for the production of aman paddy. The soil of Bangladesh is generally sandy and is ideal for áus production. Sticky sandy soil is suitable for áus and jute.

The climate in Tripura is very similar to that of Ráŕh, and although Tripura is a rain-shadow area, the amount of rainfall in Tripura is greater than in Ráŕh. The soil of Tripura is ideal for áus paddy, summer crops and potato. Jute may be grown, but there will not be an abundant harvest. Chilli can be grown in abundance and will have a large market in Bangladesh. Ráŕh can grow an abundance of mustard seeds, whereas the other regions of Bengal can grow sesame seeds, from which many oil products can be easily made. Sesame is an ideal cash crop. There should be greater emphasis on the production of sugar beet than sugar cane, because the cultivation of sugar cane occupies farm land for a full year. Sugar beet can be grown profitably in the Ayodhya Hills in Purulia district and the Shushunia Hills in Bankura district. Sugar can be easily processed from sugar beet and sweet potato (shákálu). North Bengal is ideal for the cultivation of tobacco, which needs black soil. Ráŕh has ideal soil for the cultivation of pulses and potato. Usually a damp climate is not congenial for potato cultivation, which is why North Bengal and Assam get their supplies of potato from Birbhum district. Hooghly district supplies potato to Calcutta, Burdwan district does the same for Bihar, and Midnapore does the same for Madhya Pradesh. In the eastern portion of Ráŕh, potatoes grow quite well.

Although Tripura is a rain-shadow area, its hills receive substantial rainfall because there is less movement of water vapour in Tripura than in the rest of Bengal. The Cherapunji area of Assam receives the most rainfall in the world, but the adjacent rain-shadow area of Shillong receives much less rain. Water vapour condenses into rain on the Cherapunji Hills, consequently little moisture is left for Shillong, which is why the average amount of rainfall in the Cherapunji Hills is 900 inches a year, but the amount of average rainfall in Shillong is only 80 inches a year.

One of the main differences between Tripura and Ráŕh is that Tripura receives much more rain. The weight of one potato is nearly half a kilogram in Ráŕh, but in Tripura it is much less; however, Tripura can grow many more potatoes than Ráŕh. In fact, Tripura can grow so many potatoes that it can supply Bangladesh and earn a lot of foreign exchange. Tripura can also grow a lot of mustard seeds which can be exported to Bangladesh. The sticky sandy soil of Bangladesh is not suitable for growing mustard seeds. In Tripura the soil is heavier than in Ráŕh, so Tripura can grow pineapples and bananas. Jackfruit does not require any special soil and it can be grown throughout Bengal. Tea can be grown in Tripura but not very well because it requires sloping hilly land, where water does not accumulate, and heavy rainfall. The amount of the tea harvest generally depends on the amount of rainfall.

Silchar, Karimgarj and Tripura can grow rubber, but the harvest will not be abundant. Jute requires heavy rainfall plus fertile soil, so it will grow better in Maymansingh district than in Tripura. Maymansingh district is called the “Dead Valley of Brahmaputra”. A lot of wild arum can also be grown in Tripura.

For the cultivation of vegetables there must be a constant supply of water, but not necessarily rainwater. Nadia and Kusthia districts can easily grow abundant vegetables. In these areas cabbages, cotton (chás kápás and gách kápás) can also be grown abundantly. Nadia and Murshidabad can grow much wheat. Cotton can also be grown profitably in Tripura. Rubber cultivation can be undertaken in that part of Tripura which has much rainfall.

Coconuts require saline water, hence in the coastal areas of South Bengal many coconuts can be grown. For example, in the entire coastal area of South Bengal – 24 Parganas, Noakhali, Chittagong, Coxbazaar and other places – coconuts can be grown in abundance. This coastal area is called “Marine Bengal” and is the coconut belt. It can also be utilized for the shipbuilding industry. The Sanskrit equivalent of “coconut” is kalpataru brkśa. In Siliguri, Coochbehar, Cachar and Karimganj the soil is ideal for the cultivation of betel nut. In the same soil black pepper can also be profitably grown. The cultivation of betel leaf requires saline soil. The soil of the Tamluk subdivision of Midnapore is ideal for betel leaf, and it can supply the entire Indian market. All of South Bengal can grow betel leaf.

Except for jute, all these crops come within the scope of food items. From jute many other subsidiary industries can be developed, such as paper, rayon and silk. Paper can be produced from bamboo also, but it will be a little more expensive. The economic planning of all Bengal must be done block-wise. The soil and climate of Rajganj in South Bengal are not the same as those of Malda and Raiganj in North Bengal, hence the planning in the two areas must be different. Although the economic planning of Bengal must be on a large scale, there must still be block-level planning.

Of all the varieties of grass in the world, bamboo is the tallest. The shortest is durvá grass. Durvá is a Sanskrit word. Durvá grass is quite short and grows in abundance in the Chotanagpur area. Grass of all varieties has medicinal value. There are over 250 varieties of bamboo. Besides this, sugar cane, paddy, vicali and wheat come within the category of grass. People sometimes eat the seeds of certain varieties of grass, but not of all varieties. Although sugar cane produces flowers, we rarely see its seeds. Sugar cane sprouts out of the joints of the plant. Bamboo flowers are not suitable for human consumption. Vicali grass produces tiny seeds, and during times of famine sometimes people survive on vicali grass seeds. Madur grass also produces seeds, but they cannot be eaten by human beings.

Paddy, commonly called rice, is the staple food for many people in the world. There are different varieties of paddy. The plants of some varieties are seven to eight feet tall, whereas other varieties are two and a half to three feet tall. Barley is also a kind of grass. Wheat is smaller than barley. Maize or corn and millet (bájrá) are other varieties of grass, but their leaves are more flat. The speciality of corn is not in the tip of the stem like paddy, but in the joints of the stem where the ears grow. Rice, wheat and barley are staple foods. Some local varieties of grass found in Bengal such as shyámá, nárkátiá, kaun and kodo are regarded as food. During periods of extreme food shortages, the seeds of these grasses are eaten.

The Sanskrit word dhánya means “green vegetation”. [In Bengali it means “paddy”.] When the Aryans came to India they saw green vegetation for the first time. But there is a difference between the paddy of Bengal and the green vegetation in Sanskrit vocabulary. Paddy was first seen by the Aryans when they reached Persia, although very little paddy was grown there. The Aryans called paddy briihi, that is, “the crop which has vast potential as a food”. Paddy is easily digestible and it also has medicinal value. The English word “rice” came from the Sanskrit word briihi. After 1,000 years briihi became rihi in Persian, which became risi in Old Latin after another 1,000 years, and then “rice” in modern English.

Boiled rice, fried rice, puffed rice and beaten rice are made from rice. Wheat increases physical strength, but as it is a bit acidic, it reduces vital energy after the age of fifty-five. According to some people, wheat bread brings strength to the body but dulls the brain, but rice is free from this defect. Rice takes up much room in the stomach, which is why people feel lethargic and sleepy after a meal of rice. When the Aryans entered India, they noticed that the land grew lush green vegetation, so they called it Harit Dhánya. This word became Hariyahánna after 1,000 years, then Harihána after another 1,000 years, and now it is “Harayana” – the land of abundant green vegetation.

Paddy had already been used for a long time by the Dravidians and Austrics before the Aryans first saw it. Paddy was the main crop of Ráŕh. By sowing the paddy seeds in a small plot of land, farmers first prepare the seedlings. In Sanskrit seedlings are called ásphota, and a pit for the seedlings is called biijatalá. If Sanskrit had not been the indigenous language of India, how could the illiterate villagers of Ráŕh have known Sanskrit words before the Aryans entered India? Hence, it is clear that Sanskrit was the original language of Ráŕh, Greater Bengal and India. In Dhanbad, Deoghar, Dumka, Pakur, Godda, Birbhum and other places in Ráŕh, words which originated from Sanskrit are used extensively.

When human beings first started to eat a vegetarian diet, they collected fruits, roots and vegetables from trees and plants. Sometimes they also ate grass seeds. Among the grasses, they discovered that the rice seeds did not taste bad, and gradually they became habituated to eating rice regularly. In the Stone and Bronze Ages, people used to collect paddy seeds and remove the husks with stone implements. This process ultimately led to the invention of improvised husking machines. After the discovery of fire, human beings also began to boil rice. They also discovered that rice can be dried in the sun and eaten instead of boiling it. However, rice prepared in this way tends to cause constipation, so people preferred boiled rice. The people of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh are accustomed to sun-dried rice. If sun-dried rice is eaten after midday, then there is less possibility of getting constipation. People began to fry boiled rice on primitive earth pans, and learnt that fried rice prepared in this way was a bit hard. Consequently, they boiled rice twice, and from this muri or puffed rice was prepared. Moreover, rice was fried on earth pans to prepare khai or wholegrain puffed rice. The nutritional value of puffed rice is negligible, but it can be used as a breakfast cereal. Thus, people began to prepare different kinds of food from paddy, and this is the reason that the intelligent Aryans called rice briihi.

In the primitive stage of agriculture, people used to merely scratch the surface of the soil with a stick or stone implement and scatter the seeds onto the land. When the rain came, the seeds would sprout, and in due course, grains and tuber crops would be produced. The people would harvest these crops, then burn the stalks, which would serve as manure. Gradually the fertility of the soil diminished, so they began to wonder how to increase the fertility of the soil. Some intelligent people conceived of making deep holes in the soil and extending the area of arable land. In the process, people invented the method of farming the land with ploughs and bullocks. They also discovered that cow dung was an ideal manure. With the help of ploughs, the soil could be tilled deeper and made more fertile. In olden days, people would sometimes let the land lie fallow for one to two years to increase its fertility. This system is practised even today in some places. Subsequently, people also discovered that if two seeds are sown in the same place, the plants will not grow properly, so they developed the system of planting seedlings so that each seed had its specific place – thus they developed the system of transplantation. This is called ropana in Sanskrit, while sowing seeds is called vapana. As a result of transplantation, paddy grows healthy and produces large amounts of flowers, the overall growth of the plants reaches the maximum size, and many offshoots grow out of the roots. Through these kinds of discoveries, farmers were able to increase the productivity of the land and get a better harvest from each plant. In Bangladesh it is difficult to transplant seedlings because if the seedlings are prepared in seed beds, they may be drowned due to the extensive rainfall. Consequently, paddy seeds are sown long before the rainy season so that by the time the rain starts, the seedlings will have grown to a suitable height. The rule for growing paddy is, if the tips are submerged in water due to sudden rainfall, the paddy will decompose and the plants will die, but if the water level is increased gradually, the seedling will keep growing to stay just above the water.

Varieties of paddy can be grown in all seasons. Áus is harvested in Bhádra, but in the rainy season, early autumn and late autumn, aman grows. From the last part of winter to the summer season, boro can be grown. Hence, different varieties of rice can be grown throughout the year.

Áus is grown in comparatively dry soil which receives little rain. It prefers sticky sandy soil. If water accumulates in the soil around the roots of the áus crop, the plants will wither. In Murshidabad, Jessore, Khulna, Nadia and North 24 Parganas there is plenty of sticky sandy soil. Áus can grow abundantly in these districts. The districts of North Bengal are also fit for áus cultivation.

Sun-dried áus does not cause constipation, but as it is coarse, people do not normally like it, which is why the rich people of Ráŕh used to donate the áus crop to the poor people. Good quality bread can be made from áus paddy, hence the bakery industry can be developed in every block and locality. People of average means can eat bread made from áus flour for breakfast, lunch and dinner. Such bread can be eaten frequently because it is not made of wheat, so regular consumption will not cause acidity. Among the rice eaters, the number of intelligent people is high. Rice eaters can also eat áus bread.

The production of áus will be abundant if it is grown in Vaeshákha and harvested in Bhádra. Áus can also be grown in Jyaeśt́ha and Áśáŕha. In North India áus is called bhádoi. In olden days people would cultivate áus because the early autumn was the lean season and the aman crop was still in the field, so if the áus could be harvested in the early autumn, they would get some money to pay revenue taxes. In the past during the festival to worship the snake god, villagers used to cook áus and prepare a dish made from arum. There is little risk involved in the cultivation of áus because the seeds will almost always grow if they are sown in moist soil. Only one or two showers are enough for the plants to grow and flower. In those areas of Ráŕh where there is chronic drought, áus can be grown profitably. Like other varieties of rice, áus has little fat.

From áus bran, bran oil can be made. The cement industry can be developed by using áus bran and áus husks mixed with limestone and marine soil. In western Ráŕh and the coastal region the cement industry can flourish. Cement made from aman husks is better in quality than that prepared from áus husks.

With áus, a “pigeon crop”⁽¹⁾ of [[barley]] is not very productive nor should pisciculture be developed, because in the áus paddy field there is little water. In some parts of Bengal the seeds of áus are sown in the field and not transplanted, because muddy soil is necessary for transplanted áus. In Bangladesh there is so much water that it is difficult to make mud, so áus seeds are sown directly in the field before the rainy season. As I said earlier Murshidabad and Nadia districts have rich sticky sandy soil which is ideal for abundant áus. These areas can attain self-sufficiency in food production if áus is cultivated properly. With a little care the production can be increased from one hundred and fifty to two hundred percent.

Áus straw cannot be used for thatching houses but it can be used as a cattle fodder. When straw decomposes it produces a special kind of mushroom called kavaka in Sanskrit. Though it contains some food value, it is a static food, and as such is forbidden for Ánanda Márgiis. Good quality paper and fibres may be prepared from áus straw.

Aman can be grown both by sowing the seeds and by transplanting the seedlings. As the people of Bangladesh are less industrious than the people of West Bengal, they now cultivate aman by sowing the seeds in the field, but if they will transplant the seedlings, production will increase. It should be noted that the inhabitants of Bangladesh have less physical endurance than the people of West Bengal due to climatic factors. For the cultivation of aman the soil should be ploughed four times. The land should be ploughed first in the summer when the soil is dry, again before the rainy season, then after the rainy season, and finally when transplanting is being done. In Bangladesh people usually plough the land just once, then sow the seeds.

The process of cultivating transplanted aman is as follows. First the seeds are sown in the seed beds and allowed to grow for four to six weeks before the seedlings are transplanted. The seedlings should be planted in a triangular formation in two parallel lines, and there should be some water in the field. An aman field should be inundated with water before the time of flowering, and preferably there should be rainfall to nourish the flowers. Without rain the plants will not flower properly. If the plants flower in Áshvina, after two months the paddy can be harvested. The kálá kantik variety of paddy is harvested in Kárttika and then the summer crops can be planted. A “pigeon crop” of the rai variety of mustard, small black peas (t́hikre mat́ar), small black Bengal gram (t́hikre cháná) or black lentils (t́hikre masur) can be grown as an associate crop.

Where kálá kantik paddy has been harvested green gram (big variety), peas (big variety) and potato can be grown. These days, people prefer the hybrid variety of paddy. After paddy is harvested in October the summer crop can be grown in the same land. The best time to grow wheat is in Kárttika, and if it is grown at this time the harvest will be plentiful, but if wheat is grown in Agraháyańa it will be the late variety and the harvest will be smaller. If hybrid aman is cultivated in Nadia and Murshidabad, it can be harvested before the early variety of wheat is grown, but as the soil is sticky and sandy, the water does not accumulate, hence it is not ideal for the aman crop.

The soil of Ráŕh is sticky, so it retains water; hence there are more ponds and tanks in Ráŕh than in other parts of Bengal. In Burdwan district there are over 25,000 ponds and in Purulia district over 10,000 ponds, so the soil of Ráŕh is very congenial for the cultivation of aman paddy. When it is time for the aman paddy to flower, seedlings of áus should be grown in comparatively high land. As soon as aman is harvested the vacant field should be ploughed and the áus seedlings transplanted. This crop will be winter áus. By the time winter áus is harvested, boro seedlings should be separately planted in the same land. As aman occupies the land for four months, up to six weeks can be taken to prepare the seedlings, so then the paddy will grow in the field for only two and a half months.

Boro requires three times more water than wheat, hence it is more profitable to grow wheat in Nadia and Murshidabad districts than boro. Where deep tube wells are available, boro can also be grown.

In the boro fields pisciculture may also be developed. As there is plenty of water in aman and boro paddy land, people can profitably grow the nayata, khyara, kunti and kharshota varieties of fry, which lay their eggs in ponds. The people of Ráŕh do not relish dried fish, but dried fish can be prepared in Ráŕh and exported to other regions. They should cultivate fry but not big fish such as bata, pabda and carp.

The soil of Ráŕh can produce bumper harvests if it is properly irrigated. Burdwan, Hooghly and Howrah districts produce abundant boro.

The straw of the aman paddy can be used for thatching houses, as a cattle fodder, and in the paper industry. The straw of boro paddy is not very healthy, and even cows refuse to eat it, nor can it be used for thatching, but it can be used for producing good quality paper and fibres. It can also be used to grow mushrooms. When boro straw decomposes it produces high quality mushrooms.

In northern India áus is called “autumn paddy”, aman is “winter paddy” and boro is “summer paddy”. The outer skin of the aman paddy can be used to produce cement of the best quality. In Nadia district three to four cement industries can profitably run from the winter paddy crop. In the adjacent district of 24 Parganas, lime made from the shells of small snails and shell fish can be manufactured and supplied to Nadia district. So in 24 Parganas the lime industry can be developed to supply Nadia district, thus two districts can develop their industrial potentiality.

Before the partition of Bengal, boro was widely cultivated in Bangladesh, particularly in the Kishanganj subdivision of Maymansingh district and the Habiganj subdivision of Sylhet district. These days even Ráŕh is growing a lot of boro.

Pulses do not require much water, but wheat needs to be irrigated three times during its growing cycle. Boro needs three times more water than wheat. Hence in sandy and sticky sandy soil, one should not cultivate boro, because water does not accumulate at the root of the plant. But boro is profitable, which is why if farmers get the scope to cultivate it they do not grow wheat. Wheat requires cold weather as it matures, but it is adversely affected by extreme cold. In foggy weather potato is also infected with diseases. Let the farmers grow boro on most of their land, wheat in smaller areas, and áus in the barren, dry land.

Aman bran can be utilized to manufacture bran oil, while the straw can be used in the paper industry. As a general rule it is always more profitable to establish an industry in the local area where there is a ready supply of raw materials than to transport the raw materials to some distant place. While cultivating áus in Ráŕh, the farmers should pay more attention to transplanted áus than to sown áus because transplanted áus is more productive. Flour can be made from the outer skins of aman and used to manufacture good quality bread which will have a large market. Madras has already established factories to produce biscuits from aman flour. Bengal can do the same.

China produces more rice than any other country in the world, followed by Burma, India and then Thailand. Since China and India have to feed huge populations, they cannot export rice to other countries, whereas Burma and Thailand can export rice because their populations are much smaller. The Philippines, Taiwan and Japan are self-sufficient in rice production. In Bengal most rice is produced in Burdwan, Birbhum and West Dinajpur, followed by Midnapore, Bankura and Coochbehar. Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling, Murshidabad and Nadia are deficit districts.

The soil of North Bengal, Bangladesh and Assam is very good for growing sesame. Sesame is of three varieties – the red variety, which grows in winter; the white variety, which grows in summer; and the black variety, which grows in the rainy season. Sesame does not grow well in a damp climate. The skin of sesame can be used as a good quality manure. It can also be used to make oil cake, which is both a good cattle fodder and also a manure. Sesame can also be used as flour to produce bread, pudding and porridge. It is easy to remove the skin of sesame. Simply soak the seeds in water overnight, put them in hessian cloth and rub them. The skin will automatically drop off. Skinless sesame is used for preparing some delicacies like til sandesh, the famous sweet of Burdwan, and tilkut, the most delicious sweet of Gaya district of Bihar.

Sesame is a three month crop. The land should be ploughed three times and irrigated twice. Black sesame is the best variety. Its oil is a good medicine for those who get angry easily. White and red sesame can be used to make edible oil. Sesame oil can be utilized as a scented oil, because it has a tremendous capacity to absorb different fragrances. Coconut oil has the least capacity to absorb fragrances, but it is the best hair oil. White sesame looks good. Some of the delicacies produced in Lucknow are prepared with white sesame.

Because much of the land in North Bengal and Bangladesh remains under water or contains much flowing water in certain periods of the year, it is difficult to develop pisciculture, so the dried fish industry cannot be developed. In West Bengal there are many canals, which is why much fish is produced there which can be easily exported to Burma, Thailand and Japan.

Land which cannot be ploughed and is not suitable for paddy can be utilized for “pigeon crops”. On the boundaries of the aman paddy land, Bengal gram can be grown in abundance. On the same land paddy, fry and gram can be cultivated, hence people can produce rice, fish and pulse simultaneously.

Liquid manure should be added to the paddy field after the weeds have been pulled out, otherwise the weeds will absorb the manure from the soil. Similarly, before sowing “pigeon crops” manure should be added to the soil, otherwise the “pigeon crops” will absorb the nutrients that are intended to fertilize the paddy. The “pigeon crops” should be sown after the paddy flowers. If they are sown earlier, the small fish in the paddy fields will not be able to move freely, restricting both their growth and the growth of the paddy.

Cashew nut processing plants may be established in Midnapore, particularly in the Ramnagar, Sutahata and Nandigram blocks. Cashew nut flowers should not be separated from the fruit. Floral nectar can be gathered from the flowers, which can also be utilized for the preparation of alcohol through fermentation for the pharmaceutical industry.

Seaweed can be gathered from the coastal areas of Bengal to manufacture iodine. The tobacco processing industry can be developed in Coochbehar and Bankura. Silk spinning mills can be established at Malda, Sujagang, the Jangipur and Lalbag subdivisions of Murshidabad, Vasoa Vishnupur in Birbhum district and the Visnupur subdivision of Bankura district.

Wheat is the second most popular staple food in the world after rice. When the Aryans were living in Central Asia, they were only acquainted with barley. They first came in contact with wheat after coming to Persia. Barley has food value but it does not taste as good as wheat. Barley is prepared by removing the skin of the grain. If the skin is not removed and the wholegrain is fried and ground, fried wholegrain flour will result.

In olden times wheat was ground by using hand grinding machines because there were no mills. When the Aryans came to Persia they discovered wheat and liked its good taste, so they began to search for a suitable name for this new grain. The delicious taste of a food is experienced by the tongue. The Sanskrit synonym for “tongue” is go, and that which brings good taste to the tongue is called godhúma in Sanskrit. Dhúma means merriment, festivity or delight. The Sanskrit word godhúma was later transformed into gohuma, then into gaham. In Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, it is called gehuma. In Ráŕh and Orissa, it is called gaham; in Bengal gam. In the Punjab, it is called kanaka. Mature wheat is golden in colour, hence it is called komaka, which means “golden colour”. In Tamil it is called godhumái; in English, “wheat”. The abstract nouns of the adjective “white” are “whiteness” and “wheat”. In certain places godhúma looks white, so it was called “wheat” in Old English.

After the Aryans came to India they noticed an abundant growth of wheat in the western regions. In southern India wheat was totally unknown. Usually wheat requires fertile soil, plain land, little water and a cool breeze. Of course these days there is some cultivation of wheat in South India. Wheat is a summer crop. It does not require much water – it is enough if the soil is moist – but it needs a cool breeze. The best time for cultivating summer crops is when the sun begins to move towards the north for people in the southern hemisphere, and when the sun begins to move towards the south for people in the northern hemisphere. In India, by the time the sun moves south of the equator, the harvesting of wheat should have been completed.

Wheat is a three month crop. During the cultivation of wheat the land should be irrigated three times for the best harvest – once before planting, once while the crop is growing, and once while the crop is flowering. Wheat needs fertile land, but the soil must be sticky and sandy. If water accumulates at the root of the plant, it will wither and die. In those areas of Ráŕh where sticky sandy soil is available, wheat grows well. The best places for cultivating wheat in Bengal are Malda district, the Lalgola and Baharampur subdivisions of Murshidabad district, Nadia district, North 24 Parganas, and the northern part of Jessore and Khulna districts in Bangladesh.

The soil and climate of Bangladesh is not suitable for growing wheat. Even if the plants grow, the seeds will be susceptible to fungus because of the damp climate. But in Kusthia district, wheat may be grown. This district was formerly part of Nadia district. In Faridpur and Dhaka districts, wheat will not grow because the climate is damp. For the same reason wheat cannot be grown properly in Assam and certain parts of North Bengal. If wheat is grown in these places seeds will not be produced, and even if the seeds are formed, they will be susceptible to fungus.

In Bihar ideal wheat production is not possible in Magadh, but Mithila can produce bumper crops. Uttar Pradesh and Harayana will have good harvests, but the best state in which to grow wheat in India is the Punjab. Of all the districts of the Punjab, Ludhiana has the most outstanding harvests.

In Bengal, Memari-1 block of Burdwan can produce the most wheat. Galsi-2 block is ideal for yellow mustard, and the Jamalpur area of Burdwan and Farukhabad of Uttar Pradesh can produce the most potato.

Wheat can be used to make flour and porridge. Wholegrain wheat flour or coarse flour is good for the stomach, but flour produced by removing the skin of wheat is not. Of all the districts in Bengal, wheat grows well in the inland wavy land and the land adjacent to rivers in Malda district, the Lalbag and Berhampore subdivisions of Murshidabad district, the entire Nadia district, the entire 24 Parganas district, and eastern and western Ráŕh. Bankura district supplies the best wheat seeds in Bengal. After harvesting high-breed aman, that is, aman paddy which comes from a bumper crop, the empty land should be ploughed twice at right angles, then the land will not require leveling. At the time of the second ploughing, the seeds should be sown. When they sprout, the first irrigation should be done.

The best time for sowing wheat is when Libra remains at ninety degrees with Scorpio and Sagittarius, which is in the Bengali months of Kárttika, Agraháyańa and Paośa. The early variety of wheat must be sown between the first of Kárttika and the middle of Agraháyańa, and the late variety can be sown up to the seventh of Paośa. If adequate irrigation can be arranged in Ráŕh, wheat can easily be grown there.

Small-scale irrigation projects should be undertaken for rivers such as the Mayuraksi, Kopai, Ajay, Bakreswar, Dwaraka, Barakar, Kansai, Kumari, Dulung, Keleghai, Chhotkiguwai, Barhkiguwai and Suvarnareka in Ráŕh. In these small irrigation projects, the authorities should not construct large dams, rather they should confine their expenditure to two and a half million rupees to five million rupees. As far as the standard of soil for wheat production is concerned, Samatat or Bagŕi is the best, then East Ráŕh, then North Bengal. Due to the damp climate of North Bengal, wheat seeds are easily susceptible to fungus. Wheat production per acre in Jalpaiguri is half the quantity produced in Nadia district.

Nitrogen, which increases the fertility of soil, is produced at the root of all the pulse crops. In wheat fields pulses should be grown as associate crops as this will automatically increase the production of wheat. According to the seasonal schedule of wheat planting, the relevant pulse should be planted as a blended crop. That is, early wheat should be grown with early pulses and late wheat with late pulses. The rái variety of mustard is also nitrogenous. If ninety percent of a field is cultivated with wheat and ten percent with pulses, farmers will get the equivalent of one hundred percent wheat production as well as the ten percent production of pulse, thus increasing the overall productivity. This is due to the effect of the nitrogen. Hence, the pulse crops will provide extra profit for the farmers.

The disadvantage with wheat is that when the wheat grain is growing but not yet fully matured and the easterly wind blows, the wheat will not ripen properly, and fungus will affect the seeds. If instead, however, the westerly wind blows, it will be extremely beneficial for the crop. As wheat depends on a cool breeze, with the increase in the coolness of the climate the productivity of the crop increases, but with the decrease in the coolness it decreases. If, however, there is snow or heavy frosts, the wheat crop will be destroyed. In wheat cultivation manure is also important. The nutritional value of wheat is slightly more than that of sun-dried rice.

In Bengal Samatat has the maximum potential to produce wheat, but it does not have an adequate river irrigation system. But by God’s blessing the water level in this area is not very low, so the farmers can cultivate wheat with the help of shallow tube wells. There is an extensive market for wheat throughout the world.

Those areas of Ráŕh where the soil is yellow are not suitable for the cultivation of mustard seeds. Wheat requires fertile soil but soil which contains lots of pebbles and stones. Where the climate is very cold, barley rather than wheat can be produced. In the soil of Bangladesh sesame grows quite well. The areas where the climate is a bit warm are good for wheat, but barley is not usually grown.

Countries which have much cold cannot grow wheat, but can grow oats well. The nutritional value of oats is less than that of wheat, but not much. Oats have large coarse grains. It is difficult to make bread from oats. Oat bread will usually crumble into pieces and the slices will not remain intact. In spite of excellent crops of wheat and rice, the farmers of Uttar Pradesh eat coarse grains. The large variety of oats is called jaori and the small variety is called rye in Sanskrit. Some people consider these as completely separate varieties. In rich countries oats are used as fodder. In Great Britain, England is fertile but Scotland is infertile, hence wheat grows well in England but oats are grown in Scotland. Oats are also grown in the northern parts of Russia. Oat porridge is a staple food of the Scottish people.

Some time ago India was dependent upon other countries for the supply of wheat but now it is self-sufficient in wheat production. Bengal grows a lot of wheat. When Bengal started producing wheat in Nadia district about thirty years ago, the wheat seeds were mixed with oat seeds. As a result the oats began to grow better but they did not produce seeds, while the wheat did not grow properly and produced only small harvests. Consequently, the government decided to supply better quality wheat seeds to the farmers. Wheat is also grown in Burdwan, Hooghly and Howrah districts.

The cultivation of boro is quite profitable. In western Ráŕh wheat grows better than boro, but in the low-lying areas boro may be cultivated. In Nadia district wheat is more profitable than boro. Nowadays boro is being cultivated with the help of deep tube wells, but this system of irrigation is not scientific. The same amount of water which is brought to the surface does not seep back down into the water-table because much of the water dries up due to the hot sunshine or is absorbed by the trees and plants. Hence, the water-table is rapidly declining. If the practice of deep tube well irrigation continues in Malda, Nadia and other districts, the water-table will decline so much that one day there will be no water for irrigation, and the grain crops and fruit orchards will wither and die. The farmers must be very vigilant about this problem. The wisest approach is to depend upon surface water for irrigation.

To save the Calcutta Port, the navigability of the Bhagirathi River must be maintained at any cost. The government of India constructed the Farakka Bridge to divert water to the Calcutta Port. Today Bangladesh should get as much water as India through the Bhagirathi, otherwise the rivers in Bangladesh will dry up and the economy of the country will be ruined. So the waters of the Brahmaputra should be diverted toward Rampur, Dinajpur, Malda (Manikchok) and finally merge in the Ganges. The natural course of the Brahmaputra is through Dugri, South Shalmara, Mankachar and on to Maymansingh. From there the river flows towards Bahadurabad, takes a left turn and proceeds towards Barabazar and eventually arrives at Mezra. From here the Brahmaputra commences a new course via Pabna and Sirajgunge. Even 150 years ago this course of the river was non-existent. Once the Tista River was heavily flooded and the Brahmaputra could not absorb the extra flow of water, so a new course was created because the river turned right and went all the way to Goalanda in Bangladesh and then merged into the river Padma. The old course of the river became a stagnant lake, and as a result there was a devastating outbreak of malaria in Maymansingh. The water in the newly-created section of the Brahmaputra has been well utilized by the people of Bangladesh. The water of the Brahmaputra can be easily diverted at Dhubri and this will not cause any difficulty for Bangladesh. Hence, in my opinion the people of Nadia should not unnecessarily bother about installing many new shallow and deep tube wells for irrigation.

Although the nutritional value of wheat is higher than that of sun-dried rice, wheat causes acidity. After about fifty to fifty-five years of age people who eat wheat excessively may be affected with gastric trouble and colic pain. Sometimes one may even be affected by tuberculosis and a malnourished brain. So wheat only should not be eaten twice a day. The people of Bihar undertake a lot of physical labour, but they eat wheat during the day and rice at night.

It is not profitable to use wheat stalks in the preparation of paper, but they can be used for fodder. Wheat husks are not good for pigeons and parrots because they will cause the birds stomach trouble.

It is difficult to distinguish between the seeds of wheat and of oats. The government of West Bengal should open a farm in Bankura to grow wheat seeds for cultivation throughout the state.

Poppy seeds can be cultivated with wheat as an associate crop. Poppy seed is a favourite item of the people of Ráŕh. West Bengal buys at least fifteen million rupees worth of poppy seed a year, but the central government does not allow the people of North Bengal to grow poppy seeds. There is a popular myth which says that if a wage labourer in Ráŕh earns eight paise a day he will save three paise and shop with five paise, buying three paise of rice, one paisa of oil, salt and spices, and one paisa of poppy seeds. The people of Ráŕh can forgo fish and meat, but they cannot do without poppy seeds. The seeds of poppy are sentient, the plant is mutative, and the sap is static. Poppy sap is intoxicating, hence it is called ahiphena in Sanskrit. Ahi means “snake” and phena means “foam”. The English word “opium” comes from the Sanskrit word ahiphena.

The seeds of almost all grasses are sentient. Sun-dried rice, which is usually prepared by soaking paddy and drying it in the sunshine, is also sentient. The women of the carpenter families in rural Bengal usually prepare beaten rice. If cooked rice is soaked in water overnight together with tamarind it ferments, and if the next morning the water is poured off and used with salt and chilli, it is called ámáni, which is static. Ámáni is a medicine which prevents sunstroke. Coca-Cola, Campa-Cola, etc., are mutative. Monks, nuns, missionaries and probationary monks and nuns should avoid static and mutative food. Fresh wheat is sentient, but when it is fermented for the purpose of preparing alcohol, it becomes static. All liquor or alcohol prepared by distilling wheat is static. Distilling apparatus was invented by the Buddhist monk Nagarjuna. Wheat porridge is sentient, but beer is static.

Wheat has two main varieties – early (dudhiya) and late (lalka) varieties. The late variety is the more tasty. Today people are trying to increase the production of wheat, but the wheat which is grown today is not as tasty as it used to be. Personally, I am in favour of encouraging science. I would like to appeal to the agricultural scientists to pay as much attention to the taste of wheat as to the amount of production.

Oats and rye make good fodder, particularly in rich countries, where they are often used as fodder for horses. In India poor people also eat these grains. Rotten wheat flour which even animals refuse to eat is sometimes used for food in the poor countries of Asia.

Maize or corn is an indigenous American grain and was brought to India from the USA. It grows all year round and takes sixty to eighty days to mature. In some parts of India, a particular variety called Rajendra bhuttá takes about fifty days to grow, but the quantity of production is low. This variety of maize was named after the first president of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad.

Maize prefers fertile soil and a dry climate. Water must not accumulate at the root of the plant. Conversely, jute requires a damp climate and plenty of rain. By grinding maize we get coarse flour, but it is difficult to prepare small pieces of bread from it. Big pieces of bread can be made with some effort. Maize bread is called manda or mańra in Angika. If the skin of maize is removed, ordinary quality flour can be produced. Some dishonest businessmen mix maize flour with the flour of other grains. Maize flour is not very good at holding water.

Corn is often fried in a pan to make popped corn, which does not have much taste but is nutritious. Popcorn can also be turned into beaten corn, just like beaten rice, but the corn should be soaked in water and boiled before preparing it. Japan is a rich country, yet the breakfast commonly eaten by the people is corn flakes.

Bihar and Assam in India import rice from other states of the country, but Uttar Pradesh does not import rice because the people there eat less rice. The Burdwan district produces two and a half times more rice than what is required by the local people.

If there are good rains in Bankura, Purulia and Coochbehar during the paddy season, these districts will not suffer from deficit production. But Howrah, 24 Parganas, Nadia, Murshidabad, Malda, Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling districts are always deficit areas. Of these districts, Darjeeling is a hilly region, and enough maize grows there to supply food for only five months of the year. The food supply for the other months of the year comes from the plains of Bengal. Burdwan district gets water from the Damodar Valley Corporation, so it can produce three paddy crops – aman, áus and boro. Howrah district can easily produce three paddy crops in a year also and be self-sufficient in food production.

Maize is an all-season crop which can also grow in barren soil. In Darjeeling, as the land is hilly, maize should be grown by terracing the land. Winter paddy is grown almost everywhere in Bangalistan in early or late autumn, so there is not much scope for the cultivation of maize. During the other seasons such as spring and summer maize can be cultivated, or it can be grown as a buffer or boundary crop between two other crops.

Some people think that in the Bhutan Plateau no crop other than maize can be grown, hence they say that it is wise to cultivate as much maize as possible. Maize is called makai in Hindi, but bhuttá in Bengali. In those parts of India where the climate is dry and the rainwater does not accumulate, maize can grow in abundance.

The consumption of static types of animal protein by human beings is slowly but surely coming to an end because there is a shortage of pasture land to graze animals. Even a few decades ago in India there used to be large open fields to graze cattle. People would collect the cow dung and use it as manure. Due to the increase in population and other natural factors, these vast pasture lands are fast disappearing, so cows and buffaloes are also disappearing. Fish, meat, eggs, milk, cream, butter and cheese are all animal proteins. Milk, cream, butter, etc., contain much fat. If the present trends continue, in the not too distant future animal proteins may not be available at all.

Different countries have different types of staple foods. For instance, rice is the staple food of Bengal; potato is the staple food of Ireland; and bread and butter are the staple foods of some other countries. A time will come when the populations of the meat eating countries will be in great trouble due to the absence of animal proteins. Cows can be tied to a fixed place, but sheep require vast tracts of land. Similarly, in the absence of suitable pasture land, it will be impossible to rear goats, hens and ducks. Naturally, we will have to depend more on pulses as the only viable alternative to animal protein and fats.

Of all the states in India, Gujarat has the most vegetarians. The people there depend upon vegetarian protein like pulses and prepare various food items with pulse powder. Pulse cakes are a very good food for post-convalescent tuberculosis patients. In Bangalistan the most readily available pulses are first Bengal gram (cháná), then cow pea (aŕahar), then green gram (mug), then lentil (masur), then peas (mat́ar), then kurti. Of all the pulses, black gram (biri kalái), Bengal gram, cow pea and green gram have the most food value. Cow pea provides reserve energy and physical strength, while green gram supplies instant energy but no reserve energy. Black gram provides both. Cow pea is more difficult to digest than green gram, but Bengal gram is even more difficult to digest. Black gram is comparatively easy to digest.

The quantity of pulses grown in Bangalistan at present can only meet the demands of the people for five months of the year. The rest of the demand is met by importing pulses from other states of India. In Bengal only Nadia district is self-sufficient in pulse production. Malda and Murshidabad somehow manage to meet their own needs if all the varieties are taken together. As far as black gram is concerned, Birbhum, Burdwan, West Dinajpur and Coochbehar are self-sufficient. A certain amount of black gram is exported to the Punjab and Tamil Nadu from West Bengal.

If the people of Ráŕh do not eat poppy seeds, pulses or plum chutney, they will not feel that their diet is balanced, but if they overeat these items from the early spring to the end of summer, the dry and rough climate of Ráŕh will affect their health and blood will flow from their noses. The nutrition in lentils is less than in the other pulses, while overeating peas leads to skin allergies. All lentils are mutative during the day and static at night. Pulses get sour at night and then become reddish. Those who want to develop their intellect should refrain from eating lentils. As lentils tend to be static, Ánanda Márgiis should avoid them too.

After harvesting áus or aman paddy, the field should be carefully ploughed and the big variety of pink Bengal gram, the big variety of peas and the big variety of green gram should be sown. For three to four months after harvesting aman, there is no water in the fields, but during the early part of Áshvina, the soil remains somewhat muddy and sticky. At that time the small variety of Bengal gram, peas, lentils and horse gram should be soaked in water overnight, and after they have sprouted, they should be sown as “pigeon crops”. Just as food grains are scattered before pigeons, the seeds of some pulse crops are scattered in a field as “pigeon crops” or secondary crops. The big variety of gram cannot be sown as a secondary crop because in the month of Áshvina the paddy grows quite tall, so the sun’s rays cannot penetrate through the paddy to the field, hence the seeds of the “pigeon crop” will not sprout. Black Bengal gram, black pea and lentil can be used as “pigeon crops”. The leaves of the small variety of peas are a little bitter and are harmful for the stomach. When paddy is harvested the tops of the pulses are cut off, so new offshoots grow from the pulse stalks. This process produces a large number of new offshoots from the stalks, increasing the overall production of the crop. The offcuts can be used for fodder. It is not necessary to apply fresh manure at this time because the pulses will extract what they need from the unconsumed nutrients still in the soil from the previous manuring. After the secondary crop is harvested in the month of Phálguna, mustard and summer soybean can be grown in the same field.

Usually at this time most of the land in Bengal does not lie fallow. After the áus paddy is harvested the land is often ploughed twice, and then the large varieties of pea and Bengal gram are grown, provided there is adequate provision for irrigation. The big variety of pea, Bengal gram and lentils are white, pink and red respectively. When pulses are ground by hand they split in two, but if they are ground in an improvised grinding machine with sand, they will not split apart.

If khesári is overeaten, it is harmful for the stomach. Khesári does not smell or taste good, and it sometimes causes paralysis because it contains poison. Just below the skin and just above the surface of the pulse poison develops, and this is what causes paralysis. I heard that the government had developed a variety of khesári which is not bad for the stomach. If one wants to avoid the adverse affects of khesári, it should be soaked overnight and thoroughly washed the next morning. Through this procedure the poisonous substance on the pulse will be washed off.

In Rajanagar, Dubrajpur, Mamudbazar, Murarai and Rampurhat blocks, pulses can be grown after the paddy is harvested. The chaff of khesári is a good fodder for cattle. Pulses are very nutritious for human beings.

The water and air of Ráŕh are good for health, and the people of Ráŕh have a strong physical structure. But as they do not get nutritious food, they do not get the scope to develop properly. The people of Purulia, Bankura and other adjoining districts easily contract leprosy because they lack nutritious food. Although there is poverty in Birbhum district, the people there do not suffer from leprosy. The reason is that the subterranean soil of Birbhum district contains a lot of sulphur.

The Sanskrit word for “pea” is kalaya, and the Sanskrit words for “Bengal gram” are canaka and buńt́ika. From canaka comes the North Indian word cháná, and from buńt́ika comes but́. Cháná is the big variety of Bengal gram. The Sanskrit word for khesári is triputi, and the English is “horse gram”. The Sanskrit for biri kalái is maśa kaláya, and the English is “black gram”.

On elevated land in moderately fertile soil, black gram grows well. Associate crops such as soybean, peanut and sunflower can also be grown. Black gram takes four to five months to grow. If the land is manured excessively, pulses will grow very large but they will not produce seeds, so the branches should be cut. These offcuts can be used for fodder. Similarly, if paddy land is manured excessively, the plants will grow very large but the harvest will be smaller.

Green gram (mug) has several varieties. Golden gram (soná mug) grows all the year round, but it should not be grown in the rainy season. Green gram can be grown throughout the year while black gram grows only once a year, so it is better not to grow green gram in land which is suitable for black gram. Green gram can be grown as an associate or secondary crop with any other crop, and the plants are good fodder for cattle. When the seeds mature, the plant should be harvested. The difference between green gram and other varieties of pulses is that the seeds of green gram can be readily separated by tapping the plant lightly.

In the early part of the rainy season the seeds of cow pea (aŕahar) are spread on the soil. Cow pea has two main varieties – late winter (mághii) and late spring (chaetii). In the Balagarh subdivision of Hooghly district and in Nadia and Murshidabad districts these pulses grow easily. Castor can be grown with cow pea as an associate crop, ensuring that every piece of land is properly utilized. Áus can also be grown simultaneously.

In the month of Kárttika the land can also be used for tuber crops such as sweet potato and red potato. Both crops can be grown together. In Nadia district cow pea and áus are usually grown together. In all the high arid land of West Ráŕh, áus and cow pea can be grown together. The land should be utilized all the year round.

Silkworms which live on castor leaves can also provide a lot of silk, and much cheap silk can be gathered in this way and used for clothing. Castor is both a cash crop and a food crop.

Dumka, Dunbad, Purulia, Singbhum, Bankura, Jharagram and West Burdwan were all full of kendu trees. These trees also grow in Birbhum district. The great poet Jayadeva was born in a village called Kenduvilla. In Calcutta the kendu fruit is called gáb, and in Ráŕhii Bengal indigenous cigarettes (kendu biŕis) can be made from kendu leaves.

As long as the biŕi industry remains, kendu leaves will be used commercially in Ráŕh and other parts of India. After people stop smoking biŕis, kendu leaves will lose their commercial importance. Biŕis are cheap stimulants for poor people. When people realize that smoking biŕis is detrimental to their health, they will act according to the principles of psycho-economy and reject kendu leaves on the one hand and tobacco on the other. At that time, the tens of thousands of labourers who work in the biŕi industry will have to be provided with alternative employment.

The tobacco produced in Burma and some other countries is of better quality than Indian tobacco. The custom of chewing tobacco (dokta) leaves among young women is gradually dying out. The people of North India are also discarding the habit of chewing tobacco.

As long as people in India continue to smoke cigarettes, tobacco will be grown in India, and the forestry departments of different states will earn some revenue by selling kendu leaves. At present Purulia, Dhanbad, Baharampur, Manbazar, Barabazar, Jhargram, Visnupur, Malda, Dhulian and Pakur are prominent centres for the biŕi industry. Most of the people involved in this industry are tribals and Bengali Muslims. Recently, some people of the Mahato community have also become engaged in this industry. Most of the labourers working in this industry suffer from lung diseases.

The clothing that people wear in a particular region depends upon two factors – the local climate and the availability of raw materials to make fibre. Let us discuss these factors in the context of Bangalistan.

The raw materials available in Bangalistan are mainly of four types – cotton, mulberry silk, non-mulberry silk, and synthetic silk and other materials.

Cotton is of two types – tree cotton (gách kápás) and bush cotton (chás kápás). Cotton trees bear fruit after three to four years and then die. They require a dry climate to grow properly, so although Ráŕh and Tripura may grow cotton trees, Burdwan and Purulia in Ráŕh are the ideal places. This variety of cotton is also called dev kápás. In Murshidabad, Nadia and Dhaka, cotton trees will not grow well, but from these areas high quality silk cloth was once exported to overseas countries. Even today expert silk weavers can be found in this area. Silk fibres usually come from Malda, Bankura, etc. Those districts are not famous for tree cotton but are ideal for bush cotton. The Punjab, Harayana and Maharashtra grow bush cotton. Cotton trees may grow, but not very well. During the Pathan period in India North Bengal and Tripura were famous for manufacturing fine silk clothing.

Bush cotton can grow very well in Ráŕh and Tripura. After hybrid paddy is harvested, bush cotton can be grown from November to February in vacant paddy land, and simultaneously sweet potato can be grown. From sweet potato we can get four by-products – raw sugar, molasses, yeast and alcohol. Ráŕh and Tripura can grow both tree cotton and bush cotton, whereas North Bengal and Bangladesh can only grow bush cotton.

Mulberry silk can grow well in Ráŕh and to some extent in Central Bengal, Tripura and North Bengal. If mulberry silk is grown in Tripura, alot of money can be earned. The climate of most parts of Bangladesh is not suitable for mulberry silk, but the climate of Rajahsahi, Rongpur, Dinajpur, Jessore and Kushtia is somewhat dry, so these areas can easily grow mulberry silk. Mulberry silk can be used to produce two types of high grade silk wrappers – fine quality silk and rough quality silk. Fine silk can be produced in two colours – milk white and cream. Fine silk is called garad, while rough silk is called matka. Rough silk is used to produce pants and jackets and is usually a dark colour.

In North Bengal, Tripura and Bangladesh, non-mulberry silk will grow very well. Non-mulberry silk includes tasar, endy and muuṋgá. Endy can be grown from castor trees, muuṋgá from drumstick (Moringa oleifera Lam.) trees and tasar from plants such as sal [Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.], Indian plum and Indian rosewood. Tasar is of two types – one is fine and subtle, and the other fine and coarse. The fine tasar can be used to make shawls, and the coarse to make coats.

Nylon, rayon and jute’s-wool come within this category. Nylon fibres can be made out of coconut fibres, paddy husks and jute. Rayon can be made from jute skin, pineapple leaves and banana stalks. Tripura enjoys special providential favour in this regard. The nylon and rayon industries can make enormous profits.

Ráŕh and Tripura can also produce good quantities of wool because they have sufficient pastures to graze cattle and sheep. It is not difficult to rear sheep in Ráŕh. By mixing the wool of Ráŕh and Tripura and nylon made from the jute of Central Bengal, jute’s-wool can be produced and used to make high quality warm clothing. Jute’s-wool cloth will be very useful for the people of Bengal in winter.

We can manufacture four by-products from the coarse fibre of jute – hessian cloth, carpets, suiting and shirting. Spinning mills for manufacturing suiting and shirting should be well established. Clothes can be made in every house as a cottage industry, and women and children can also participate. In every subdivision of Bengal there should be at least one spinning mill. These days fine fibres are being produced from linseed, okra and sesame, and are sent to Ahmedabad to produce fine cloth. Throughout West Bengal linen cloth can be prepared in abundance. Linseed and sesame skins can also be used as an alternative food to coarse wheat flour. From linseed we can get four by-products – fertilizer, food, oil and fibres. From okra we can get four similar by-products. We can also produce plastic to make shoes from coarse jute (mestá pát). Plastic can also be made from hyacinth. Mestá pát is called jute though it is not really jute. The Sanskrit term for real jute is called patta or kaśt́á. 3,000 to 4,000 years ago, the women of Bengal used to wear fine jute clothing.

Building materials include vehicle building materials, house building materials and other building materials.

Vehicle-building materials include shipbuilding materials. Bengal has an old tradition of shipbuilding. Since the Vedic Age, more than 5,000 years ago, the engineers of Bengal have known how to build ships. Most of the shipbuilding yards were located in South Bengal – Midnapore, Howrah and 24 Parganas. Midnapore was in Danda bhúkti, Howrah was within Burdwan bhúkti and 24 Parganas was within Nadia or Samatat bhúkti. In Khulna, Bakharganj (the old name was Chandradipa), Noakhali (the old name was Bhalluka, but later it became Bhulua) and Chittagong in Bangladesh there were shipbuilding centres. The engineers of these regions were experts in shipbuilding. As a huge stock of garán or sundari wood was available in South Bengal, which was ideal for shipbuilding, the industry thrived. Boats and small ships were made with garán wood. Carpenters and fishermen would make small fishing boats with this type of wood. Even today, plenty of wood necessary for building boats and ships is readily available in the Sundarbans in South Bengal.

The metals necessary for shipbuilding are available in Ráŕh, where there are large deposits of iron ore, manganese, copper and silver. Various types of metals necessary for building ships are also easily available in Bengal, so Bangalistan can easily be self-sufficient.

The total area of the Sundarbans is 4,000 square miles. Out of this, 1,600 square miles fall within West Bengal and the remaining 2,400 square miles within Bangladesh. Bangladesh has cleared a major part of the Sundarbans and converted it into arable land. Even today in South Bengal the shipbuilding industry can easily be established at Khulna, Bakharganj and Noakhali in Bangladesh, and in Basirhat, Diamond Harbour and Alipore in West Bengal.

One of the most important materials for building vehicles is rubber. A vast area of North Bengal comprising the Duars, the Tarai, Goalpara, Kokrajhar, and Jhańpa now in Nepal can produce much rubber. Rubber can also be grown in Tripura. Rubber cultivation requires moderate rainfall, laterite soil and wavy land, so Bangalistan can easily produce sufficient amounts of rubber. The remaining materials necessary to construct vehicles can be easily produced in Ráŕh, including manganese, mica, silver, mercury, quartz and copper. Jhalda, Arsha, Puncha and Jaipur in Purulia district, and Khatra in Bankura district, have large deposits of these raw materials.

All of North Bengal, Tripura, and the Chittagong Hills can develop a flourishing house building materials industry. The most important materials for house building are bricks and cement. Bricks and tiles can be easily made throughout Bangalistan.

The necessary amount of lime can be produced from limestone and ghuting, a kind of clay which is about ninety percent lime. Besides this, there is a huge stock of calcium carbonate and calcium hydroxide in Ráŕh; lime can also be produced from these materials. In the northern parts of Jalpaiguri, in the Jayantia Hills, there is a good supply of dolomite and limestone. Dewangari was previously in Bengal, but at the time of independence it was given to Bhutan. It has a large stock of dolomite and limestone which can be used to produce lime. Sufficient quantities of lime necessary for the house building materials industry can also be produced in the coastal areas of South Bengal from shells and oysters. Large deposits of limestone available in the southern part of Ráŕh are now in the hands of Marawari merchants. They export huge quantities of lime to other parts of India which is used in the cement industry. At Jhalda, Purulia and Bankura cement can be easily produced from limestone, ghuting, dolomite, oysters and conch shells. In the northern part of Sylhet there are also limestone deposits. In Khaosia, Jayantia Hills, Maulavi Bazaar and the remaining parts of Sylhet district, except Habiganj, there are deposits of limestone.

The soil of Ráŕh contains a good percentage of calcium which is why it is ideal for growing oranges. Calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate are also available in Ráŕh.

I am certain that the amount of cement necessary for house building will be easily available in certain parts of Bangalistan. High quality cheap cement can be easily produced from the husks and stalks of aman paddy mixed with ghuting lime. Cement factories based on the husks of paddy can be established in Ráŕh, North Bengal, Maymansingh, Sylhet and the southwestern parts of Tripura. Cement can be readily manufactured in these areas. Cement can also be made from mixing ghuting and limestone.

Another house building material is sand. Mogra is situated by a stagnant tributary of the Damodar River which contains large quantities of high quality sand.

Previously, the people of North Bengal and the eastern districts of Bangladesh would collect house building materials from Tripura. For example, they would bring chan grass to thatch houses. Bushes and bamboo can also be used as house building materials.

Beside every road in Ráŕh there is plenty of ghuting. In the coastal areas of the Bay of Bengal there are plenty of sea shells and oysters which can be utilized to produce lime. At Jhalda we must establish cement factories immediately. Except for Habiganj, all of Sylhet has limestone deposits.

As I see it, in almost every village of Bangalistan there can be cement factories. Within a period of six to seven days a house can be built.

Brahminberia in Maymansingh has deposits of underground natural gas. Naranganj and Barabazar in Dhaka district also have underground natural gas. Natural gas can be used as fuel. Doors, windows and accessories for house building, and other building materials, can all be manufactured in factories throughout Bangalistan.

The natural vehicle for the expression of internal ideas is one’s mother tongue. Bengali is the mother tongue of the Bengali race, whose original boundary was the Arakans in the east, Ramgarh or the Pareshanath Hills in the west, the Lower Himalayas in the north, and the Ganges Delta of the Bay of Bengal in the south. The southern deltaic region was built up by the branch rivers and tributaries of the Brahmaputra and Ganges Rivers and the rivers of Ráŕh. In the Vedic Age Bengal was called Bangabhumi and Samatat. The Ráŕh area was called Ratla. In Persian the word for Bengal was Bangal; in Turkish, Bangala; in Latin, Banjala; in Chinese, Banjal; in Sanskrit, Vauṋga or Ráŕh; in Bengali, Bangladesh; in Urdu, Bangal; and in English, “Bengal”.

Bengali is one of the Prákrta languages of the Mágadhii group. Mágadhii Prákrta originated about 3,500 years ago. Modern Bengali originated about 750 years ago, and the Bengali script about 1,200 years ago. (The Bengali race is about 5,000 years old). Bengali is now the mother tongue of 160 million people.

The natural medium of expression in Bangalistan should be Bengali. The second language as a medium of expression should be English, because English is the link language with people who speak other languages. Besides this, the Sanskrit language should be taught as a compulsory language in the lower classes.

Bangalistan has been a principal education centre in the world since earliest times. Even about 5,000 years ago, Chinese scholars used to come to Bangalistan for higher study. There were three great seats of learning in Bengal – Vikramanipore, or present Vikrampore in Bangladesh, Burdwan and Contai.

The most important material for education is paper. The raw materials to make paper include jute, mestá pát́, stalks of boro paddy, corn cobs, hoop pine, vicali grass and bamboo, which can also be used to make nylon.

The other essential materials for education, such as fountain pens, nibs and ink pots, are easily available in Ráŕh. Plenty of raw materials to make writing ink are also available in Ráŕh and include hematite, blue vitriol, ferrum sulphate and indigo. Through synthetic processes, all kinds of colour inks can be made.

So, there is no reason why Bangalistan cannot be self-sufficient in the production of all the materials necessary for education.

Ráŕh has huge deposits of minerals. If all these materials could be properly utilized, a large number of industries could easily be established. To tell the truth, Ráŕh has greater industrial potential than even the Ruhr region in Germany. In Ráŕh there are extensive deposits of coal, coal gas and natural gas. These mineral resources are extremely useful in building industrial complexes. All raw materials for making items such as glass and laboratory instruments are also easily available in the southwestern part of Bangalistan, particularly in Hooghly district. In Bengal there are abundant resources of lead, manganese, iron ore, copper and mercury. These materials and metals can be widely used to manufacture medical equipment.

Bengal is a land with a hot and humid climate. Most of the people who live in Bengal are poor. Naturally a large percentage of the people suffer from fever, diarrhoea, dysentery and dyspepsia. Many of the medicinal plants which are essential for the treatment of such diseases are available in various parts of Bangalistan.

The most important regions for medicinal plants are the Duars, Goalpara, the plains of Darjeeling district in North Bengal, and Jhańpa district. These areas abound in medicinal plants. Jhańpa district is now part of Nepal, but previously it was included in Coochbehar. The Gorkha leader Prithvi Naryan Saha forcibly seized this district from the king of Coochbehar. The language of this district is Rangpuri, a dialect of Bengali. The Duars and other areas in North Bengal are very rich in medicinal herbs. To cure common diseases such as fever, stomach problems and dysentery, people can easily use these medicinal herbs.

Of all the remaining regions which are rich in medicinal plants, Assam, Meghalaya and the Sundarbans is the second most important area. The third important area is Ráŕh and Tripura. The rest of the plains of Bangalistan are used extensively for paddy cultivation, so obviously in those areas medicinal plants will not be available.

Ráŕh is the richest area in Bengal as far as the availability of mineral medicines, and includes Jhargram, Birbhum, Dhanbad, Purulia, Singbhum and the Bengali speaking areas of Ranchi district. The resources in these areas can be easily utilized for preparing medicines. For instance, in this region plenty of antimony and urea can be found. Quinine can also be found in the Kurseong Hills, Ayodhya, Tilabhani and the Dalmar Hills.

Plenty of materials for making medicinal instruments are available in the Kurseong Hills of Darjeeling district. Medicinal plants are also plentifully available. The Kalimgpong Hills, which has a humid climate, is not an ideal place for medicinal plants. The previous name for Kurseong was “Kharsan”. Once it was a part of Sikkim. The name “Kharsan” is wrong. The previous name of Siliguri was “Dalimpir”, and once it was a part of Bhutan. The king of Bhutan once forcibly occupied this region. The previous name of Darjeeling was “Dorjiling”.

Of the various medicinal plants, jatamangsii and ipikak grow well at high altitudes. A large area from Jhalda to Angara – that is, Jhalda, Muri, Silli, Gautamdhara and Angara – is an ideal place for cultivating herbs. This particular region of Ráŕh experiences greater rainfall than the other regions of Ráŕh. Plenty of medicinal plants can also be acquired from Sabrum, Panisagar and Dharmanagar in Tripura. In the forests of the Sundarbans, plenty of medicinal plants can be found. Saline soil itself has medicinal value. Starch which is used to stiffen shirts can be made from gol fruits. Plenty of gol trees grow in the Sundarbans. Similarly, the Garo Hills of Meghalaya and the Hojai and Lanka subdivisions of Nagaon district in Assam can supply plenty of medicinal plants.

Plenty of mercury is available in Ráŕh, along with other mineral resources. Mercury in the crude form of mercury sulphate can be found. There is also plenty of copper. If mercury and copper are mixed, many types of medicines can be made. The Tamakhun area of Manbhum district is full of copper. Copper was profitably exported to overseas countries in the past from the port of Tamralipta. In olden days boats and ships plied on the Kangsavati River, but now the same river has almost dried up.

The profitable industries in Bengal are mainly of two types – cash crops and non-agricultural industries.

Sufficient black pepper can be grown in Tripura because the climate is congenial there. Of course, Tripura already grows black pepper and hot chilli, but the production should be increased. There is a very good market for hot chilli in Bangladesh.

Bengal is deficient in the production of pulses. It only produces enough pulses to meet the demand of the people for five months of the year, so for the remaining seven months pulses are imported from outside. After áus paddy is harvested, three crops of green gram can be grown. Golden gram can be grown on the field after the paddy has been harvested. After one month when the hybrid variety of áus is harvested, the tops of the green gram will be lopped off. Many shoots will grow from the stalks which can be harvested after sixty days. Through this process golden gram can be harvested three times a year. The offcuts can be used for cattle fodder.

There are two main varieties of cow pea – the late winter variety (mághii aŕahar), also known as the “small” variety of cow pea, and the late spring variety (chaetii aŕahar), also known as the “big” variety of cow pea. Besides these two, there is another variety of cow pea, the late autumn variety (ághanii). In the high and barren land of Ráŕh this variety of pulse can be grown with áus paddy. Black gram can grow in abundance in Bengal. It is a five month crop. It grows abundantly in Coochbehar, Dinajpur, Burdwan, Malda and Purulia.

Bengal gram is a five month crop. It is spread in the wet aman field in those areas where there is a shortage of water. If you want to grow the big variety of green gram, the seeds should be sown in October after harvesting the hybrid paddy. This crop is harvested in Caetra, the last month of the Bengali year.

Horse gram is grown in abundance throughout Bengal, but it is not good for health as it can cause paralysis. These days there is a new variety of gram in the market which is a bit soft. Although it is a four month crop, its cultivation is not very profitable.

Nadia, Murshidabad, Malda, Raiganj, the Islampur subdivision of Dinajpur district, the Mekhlinganj subdivision of Coochbehar district, and parts of Jalpaiguri district minus Dinhata subdivision are ideal for the cultivation of wheat. Lentils can be grown in the wheat field as an associate crop. In the comparatively dry regions of Tripura, green gram can be grown early. If the production of pulses is increased, the total amount of pulses grown in Bengal will be more than the requirement of the people, and the surplus can be exported. All varieties of pulse except lentils are presently imported. The surplus pulses grown in Tripura can be exported to Bangladesh. The skins of pulses are very healthy fodder for cows. As there is a shortage of pasture lands, the chaff of pulses can be used as a good cattle fodder.

Rubber is a very good cash crop. Rubber can be grown in abundance in those areas of Bengal which have plenty of rainfall; the land is wavy but rainwater does not accumulate. In Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling, Dhubri, the northeastern part of Cachar district, and Tripura, rubber can grow particularly well.

For cocoa cultivation extensive and heavy rainfall is required. For coffee, a moderate amount of rainfall is required. Coffee can be grown in the Birbhum, Purulia and Bankura districts of Ráŕh. Coffee can be cultivated even in the dry infertile land of Ráŕh, but tea cultivation may not be so profitable. There is much similarity between Tripura and Ráŕh, so coffee can be grown in both places. Similarly, cocoa can be grown in Tripura. Cocoa trees are called “cacao” and the fruit is called “cocoa”.

Jute is also a cash crop, but instead of using jute for sacks, it could be better utilized in making coarse clothing. In Cachar, Sylhet and the Sabrum area of Tripura, oranges can be grown, but not abundantly. In Tripura and southern Bengal cashew nut can be a good cash crop. It was first cultivated in Midnapore, and was known as hijli bádám. Cashew nut has tremendous food value. It is also a very lucrative cash crop. In the Contai subdivision of Midnapore, cashew nut is being produced on a large scale.

Bangladesh has only two cash crops – raw jute and hide. If hide is tanned and exported to different countries, it may bring in a lot of foreign exchange. But as there is no developed tanning technology in the country, Bangladesh sustains heavy losses by exporting untanned hides to foreign countries. If people continue to use plastic goods instead of leather products, then both the jute and leather markets will suffer severely. I am sorry to say Bangladesh does not follow the rules of nature.

Of all the sericultural items, silk and lac are the most important cash crops. Non-mulberry silk can be grown on Indian plum trees, and high quality silk can be grown on kusum trees. Lac is of three varieties – Jhalda, Murshidabad and Baharampur. These three places are famous for lac production. There is a good market for lac throughout the world. In Bengal the demand is decreasing day by day because once Bengali women would use lac ornaments, but now this practice has gone out of fashion.

In Bangalistan beeswax does not have a good market. Paraffin wax has supplanted beeswax. Beeswax has great medicinal value. For beekeeping, the best places are the Sundarbans, Meghalaya, Tripura and Ráŕh. Beeswax cannot compete successfully with paraffin wax.

In olden times paddy was regarded as the goddess of fortune, and the husk was called tus. About 1,200 years ago, Mansingh lived in Ráŕh and Manbazar was the capital of his kingdom. He had two daughters, Bhádumani and Tusumani. After he died, Tusumani ascended the throne and became a very popular queen. In Ráŕh there is a festival called “Tusu” in her honour. Unfortunately, these days tus is indiscriminately burnt.

There are several types of land from the viewpoint of the retention of water, and include:

1) High and dry land (tánŕ land). This land is barren and little or no water is retained in the soil.

2) Barren plain land (bad land). Barren plain land will hold water in the soil with some effort. Áus and aman can grow to some extent.

3) Average land (kańali land). This type of land will hold water for a longer period than barren plain land, but it is inferior to moist fertile land.

4) Moist fertile land (bahál land). This land retains water well and is suitable for most types of farming.

Although high and dry land is not ideal for the production of cash crops, some crops can be grown profitably in this type of land. For example, some crops that can be grown permanently in high and dry land include palmyra; dates; bakul [Minisapes elangi]; kheyer [Acasia catechu Willd.]; Indian plum; kusum [Schleichera trijuga Willd.]; and palash [Butea frondosa Koenig-ex Roxb.]. A temporary crop which can be grown in the same type of land is lemon grass for the cosmetics and medicine industries. If high and dry land can be ploughed, then in the month of Aśádha, the first month of the rainy season, cow pea and either the Rajendra bhuttá variety of maize (a forty-five to fifty day crop) or early áus can be grown together. After sixty days when cow pea is harvested, áus will remain in the field and be harvested in Áshvina. The stalk of the early variety of áus is good cattle food and can be used for bran oil.

The seeds of maize or corn are human food, the cobs can be used in the paper industry, and the stalks are a useful cattle fodder. If corn is fried in an earthen pan, popped corn is produced. If corn is fried and ground before the corn pops, fried corn flour is the result. If the corn is ground without removing the skin and without frying, coarse corn flour is obtained.

After maize is harvested, sweet potato can be planted in the holes in the ground. The potatoes should be watered by sprinkling water on the field until new leaves grow. After that, water will not be required. Sweet potato has more nutrition than red potato.

Sunflower can be grown with maize as an associate crop. Sunflower and maize cannot be grown as associate crops with áus. The sunflower and maize draw moisture from deep below the soil, and that moisture also helps in the growth of the red potato and the sweet potato.

Sargujá or niger can be grown on high and dry level land which cannot be ploughed or dug with a spade but can be broken with some difficulty. Niger can be grown in the high and dry land of Ráŕh. The oil has a pungent odour, which is why many people do not like to use it, but if it is deodorized it can be widely used. Cow pea, áus and sunflower cannot be grown in high and dry land, but sábui grass can be grown and is very useful for the paper industry. Lemon grass too can be grown and can be used for preparing medicines and cosmetics. Where even lemon grass and sábui grass cannot be grown on high and dry land, then plants such as palm, sal, piyal, Indian plum, kusum, palash, kheyer, and wild blackberry can be grown. If necessary, this sort of land can be used as pasture for cattle. If the area of the high and dry land is quite large, along the borders we can grow banyan, sishu [Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.], oak and wild blackberry for both wood and medicine; African sweet berry for sugar and alcohol; and Indian olive (mahul) which is very useful for making honey, bread, alcohol, molasses, oil and tasty foods. If these trees are grown, on the one hard we can prevent soil erosion and retain the fertility of the soil, and on the other hand the land will develop the capacity to retain water.

The juice extracted from sweet potato can be used to produce sugar and raw sugar and the remaining pulp can be used in the paper industry. Sweet potatoes can also be grown on high and dry land, but the tubers will be small. Sweet potato is a three month crop and is harvested in Paośa, the first month of winter. People can make pancakes out of sweet potato, although they will not be very nutritious. Tapioca is nutritious. On all high and dry land cow pea can be grown. Lavender (keyá) can also be grown, and with some effort we can get good fibre crops. In Vaeshákha and Jyaeśt́ha the land is usually left fallow.

Cow pea stalks can be used for fencing, fuel and thatching. The empty pods can be used for fodder, and pulses can be prepared from the seeds. If high and dry land is used for cultivation, then it may be difficult to raise cattle for want of pasture land. High and dry land which can be ploughed should not be used for pasture land. In high and dry land all types of cattle can be reared. In Ráŕh the people mostly rear sheep, and in the month of Áshvina the sheep farmers of Ráŕh usually leave their homes with a flock of sheep and move to Madhya Pradesh in search of healthy grass. From acasia we get tasar silk and medicine, and from Indian plum we get tasar, lac, and wood for sports goods. Wild berry (kathjam) can be used to prepare various types of medicines and non-mulberry silk. The berries can also give honey, but this honey is a bit hot. In olden times the kings of western Ráŕh used to plant sal, palm and pujasal.

Ráŕh has plenty of mica. Mica was formed about 1,000 million years ago. The Sanskrit name is abhra. It is readily available at Ánanda Nagar. In Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling, Coochbehar and Brahmanberia of Sylhet district – which is at present in Bangladesh – natural gas and oil are available. In other parts of Sylhet and the Khowai subdivision of Tripura, natural gas can also be found. There are large sulphur deposits stretching for eighty miles from Bakreswar to Nanur in Birbhum. The people of Birbhum, Purulia and Bankura are almost equally poor. Recently, after the Mayuraksi Dam was constructed, there has been a slight improvement in the standard of living of the people of Birbhum.

Leprosy is a disease of malnourishment and poverty. Although the people of Birbhum, Purulia and Bankura are equally poor, there are many cases of leprosy in Bankura and Purulia and few cases in Birbhum because of the presence of sulphur deposits. Sulphur is a useful antidote for skin diseases. Sulphur can also be utilized as an ingredient for various medicines.

Iodine is also a useful ingredient for various medicines. A large amount of iodine can be easily processed from seaweed in the Digha coastal area. It can also be extracted from sea water. The term “seaweed” include many types of sea vegetation. In the coastal areas of Chittagong, many types of seaweed are available. In fact, in all the coastal areas of Bangalistan, seaweeds with a high percentage of iodine are available. The best place to process iodine is Digha. Iodine and chlorine are marine products. Iodine can only be manufactured in South Bengal, not in North Bengal. Many people in North Bengal suffer from goitre, but in South Bengal the disease is almost eradicated. Borine can also be extracted from borax to make medicine. Borax can be found in the Bengali speaking area of Ranchi district.

In Ráŕh there can be prosperous aluminum factories in the belt from Jhalda to Angara. In the Bengali speaking areas of Ranchi district, there is a long bauxite belt. Ráŕh can easily develop profitable aluminium factories. It has more aluminium deposits than it needs to meet its own requirements.

In the areas close to the sea, canals can be constructed and filled with water. After a few days the water will evaporate and a layer of salt will remain on the canal bed. In a number of places the salt industry can be established commercially in Bangalistan. The salt industry can thrive in Digha, Ramnagar, Mohanpur, Contai and Junput and, to some extent, on the Kutubdiya Island in Bangladesh.

Midnapore, 24 Parganas, Khulna, Bakharganj, Naokhali and Chittagong are all coastal districts. The climate of Midnapore is like that of western Ráŕh. In the summer season the hot winds start blowing over the land and the climate is dry, so water evaporates very fast. Obviously salt can be easily and profitably produced. The three main blocks of Midnapore district that have the greatest possibility of developing the salt industry because they are closest to the sea are Digha, Contai and Ramnagar.

(1) Páyrá phasal. A minor crop grown in the same field as a main crop. The seeds for a “pigeon crop” are sown by casting them in the same way that one might cast grain to pigeons. –Eds.

Some Developmental Programmes for Bengal

Published in:
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Notes:

from “Talks on Bengal”
Prout in a Nutshell Part 19

Much can be done to develop the socio-economic potential of Bengal, but to do this you will have to know a great deal about the local area and put this knowledge to practical use. What are the main production towns in Bengal? What are the major cities – that is, which are the places with populations of more than 100,000 people? What is the source of the daily drinking water? Is it artesian water or rain water? Are there any hygiene problems among the people in these cities? What is the main source of income of the citizens there? And what is the source of their socio-economic livelihood? Is it based on agriculture, industry or commerce? To develop the local area, you will have to know the answers to questions such as these.

Let us briefly examine the economic potential of a few areas such as Birbhum district, Digha, and Bankura district.

If one travels from the north to the south of Birbhum district, one can observe two types of land, particularly in the area of Tarapith – high land and low land. In Nanur block near Labhpur the land is high, and in the Mayureswar block it is low. The main physical characteristic of the people in these two areas is that their height varies – in the high land the people are comparatively tall, and in the low land they are comparatively short. Similarly, in the eastern portion of Birbhum district the people are comparatively tall, and in the western portion the people are comparatively short. The western portion of Birbhum district is much more developed than the eastern portion. People have skin disease in the high land region. Birbhum district was formed in 1856 by combining Suri, Rampurhat, Dumka and Deoghar, and certain portions of Murshidabad district.

About 1,200 years ago Upabanga or Shriibhum included Sylhet, Noakhali, Chattala and Tripura. Banga or Barak was situated on the eastern side of the Padma River, while Barendrabhum was situated on the northern side of the Padma. The original region of Bengal included five areas – Ráŕh, Samatat, Banga, Barendra and Mithila. Collectively these five areas were called “Pancha Gaur” or the “Five Sweet Lands”. Pancha means “five” and gaur means “sweet”.

After Caetanya Deva initiated the tribals of Tripura, they adopted the title Devaburman – deva came from Caetanya Deva, while burman means “tribal”. Mu-Chang-Fa, who originally led these tribals into Tripura from northern Burma, was greatly impressed by Caetanya’s philosophy and the Bengali language he spoke, so he and his royal court embraced Bengali culture.

In the Kamalpur block in Tripura the soil is composed of granite rock and is very suitable for the cultivation of cashew nuts and pineapples. Horticulture can best be developed in Sonamura, Belonia and Kamalpur blocks.

The topographical order of the entire state of Tripura is shaped like a saucer. Potatoes can be grown twice a year. Two types of potatoes can grow in Tripura – red skinned and white skinned.

What is the source of water in the Salema block in North Tripura? The block headquarters is in Kailasahar. The main source of water is the Dhalai River coming from Longthorai Hill. During the rainy season there is plenty of water, but in the dry season there is a shortage.

Now let us discuss Digha. Previously Digha was known as “Diirghaka” – diirgha means “long” and ka means “land” – then it became “Diirghá” and today it is “Digha”. Ramnagar, a town near Digha, was named after Ramnarayan Hata, the last maharaja of Midnapore district. Kánthi then became the district headquarters. The British moved their headquarters to Kánthi after a large storm engulfed Ramnagar, but they changed the name Kánthi to Contai as there was another district headquarters with a similar sounding name. The area around Digha used to be predominantly Buddhist.

The beach at Digha is the broadest in the world. Throughout Digha district along the seashore, there should be large-scale afforestation of samudric jhau trees to check oceanic storms. If these storms are checked, many types of plants can be grown successfully. Coconut grows especially well. If you travel by car about five kilometres west of Digha, there are dense forests along the coast. However, there is no stone retaining walls on the beach to stop the encroachment of sea. Approximately every seven years large storms come and wash away the trees, which is why many of the trees do not get a chance to grow very tall. If the trees are not replanted along the beach and no retaining walls are constructed, there will be much erosion and the intensity of the storms will not be checked.

The train line should go up to Bhograi, not just to Digha. At Bhograi, the Suvarnareka River merges into the sea. Bhograi is at present in Orissa. A port should be built there to export such commodities as coconut, fish, betel nut, betel leaf and good quality cashew nuts, rather than their going through the Calcutta Port. This will help the socio-economic development of the region. A marine drive should also be constructed along the length of the Digha beach to attract tourists and make its scenic beauty accessible to the people.

Finally, let us discuss Bankura district. The entire Bankura district can be divided into three categories. First, there is the Visnupur subdivision, excluding the Indus block. The soil in this area does not have much capacity to retain water. The land is neither completely plain nor wavy. The aman variety of paddy grows well, while áus paddy and boro paddy do not grow so well. Planning should provide for proper irrigation facilities and drainage.

Secondly, there is the Indus block. This area is plain land, but the soil cannot hold much water. It is very similar to the soil of the bordering Burdwan district. So the agricultural planning of this area should be undertaken together with Burdwan district. Agriculture is the main source of livelihood for the people in this area.

Thirdly, there is the Khatra subdivision and the remaining portion of Bankura district. Here the land is wavy and there are numerous scattered clusters of a few huts. The water flows down the sloping land quickly, and the water retaining capacity of the soil is low compared to the rest of the district. Proper planning for irrigation needs to be undertaken. The land is low in agricultural potentiality but it is rich in mineral wealth. In the southern portion of this area huge deposits of coal, mica, silver and copper can be found. The adjacent Manbhum area (which falls within Purulia district) also has huge reserves of copper. To the south of the road connecting Purulia and Bankura, huge deposits of minerals can be found. Industries based on these mineral resources should be properly planned and developed.

The soil in Bankura district is good for horticulture, so this industry should also be properly planned and organized. For example, grapes, sweet lemons, papayas and guavas grow very well. The soil around Taldanga block is good for the cultivation of gourd. The entire area should be divided according to the potential of agriculture, horticulture and minerals. Developmental planning should be formulated accordingly.

The state language of the Arakan range was Bengali, which was introduced by the poet Syed Mohammed Alaoal who lived in the Belonia district of Bangladesh.

In Howrah district the silk industry is not in good condition, and most of the silk now comes from Malda district. Mango has not been developed into an industry. In Amta block in Howrah district, Kendua or Kendermath is a large fertile area which has ideal paddy land. Is there scope to develop any new large-scale or medium-scale industries in Amta subdivision? What are the rivers in this area? Is the source of water perennial? What is the socio-economic condition of your block?

In Badampahar, in the Bhanjabhum area of Keonjahar district in Orissa, there are reserves of iron ore. The maharaja of that area started a narrow gauge train to transport iron ore. Today the Tata Company still utilizes the same train to carry iron ore. There is also a plentiful supply of babui grass, which is being used to make rope by the local people. It can also be used to manufacture paper. The mother tongue of the Mahatos in Bhanjabhum is suppressed.

To develop the industrial potential of any region you should take into consideration factors such as the power and water reserves, the community problems, the land and soil conditions, the mixed farming potential, the availability of raw materials, and the development of local industries.

Contai Basin Planning

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 20 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

The Contai Basin is the area between the Rasulpor and Suvarnareka Rivers where they are about to merge in the Bay of Bengal. The Bengali name of Contai is Káṋthi derived from the Sanskrit word kaṋthiká. The British changed Káṋthi to Contai because to them Kánthi sounded similar to Kandi in Murshidabad district and Kanthi in Midnapore district.

In the Contai Basin there are numerous natural resources which can be the basis for various large-scale, medium-scale and small-scale industries in the planned development of the area. Nature has generously allocated her resources to almost all the regions of the world – on land, in water, in space, in the deserts, in the mountains, in the dense forests and on the bottom of the sea. Nowhere has nature been miserly in bestowing her wealth. By applying human intellect, wisdom, enterprise, mutual cooperation and commercial acumen, these natural resources can be fully utilized, and each region of the world can be developed agriculturally, industrially and commercially into viable self-sufficient socio-economic units.

Planning for the economic development of the Contai Basin should be included within the framework of block-level planning. If this approach is adopted it will ensure integrated, balanced and multi-purpose developmental planning. Unfortunately, no government has so far taken a constructive approach to the socio-economic problems of the region or bothered to assess the actual amount of natural resources and economic potentialities in the Contai Basin. Economic planning must identify the particular problems of the Contai Basin and utilize the natural resources of the region to solve them.

Of all the problems affecting the area, the worst is the frequent occurrence of cyclones. The Contai Basin is a low lying area along the coastal belt of South Bengal. About 200 to 300 miles out to sea depressions often form in the Bay of Bengal. As a result the human beings, animals, buildings, agriculture and natural environment of this area are regularly subjected to violent cyclones which cause untold loss of life and property. To control the fury of nature, there must be extensive afforestation in a strip one mile wide along the entire coast. In this strip trees such as shishu [Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.], cashew nut, jackfruit and hoop pine should be grown. These varieties of trees will create an artificial forest which will function as a natural wall to keep the powerful cyclonic winds and the destructive force of nature from wreaking havoc in the region.

A new kind of afforestation programme must be developed for this purpose. Such a programme will yield a number of benefits – the cyclones will be resisted; the loss of agricultural land will be minimized; new forest resources will flourish; regular rainfall will increase; the production of cash crops such as cashew nut and jackfruit will develop; and the purchasing power of the people will be enhanced. If a village or settlement already exists within the coastal strip, it should not be destroyed. Rather, the afforestation should be done all around it and continued along the coast. If the pine trees are planted close together, the pores of the leaves will attract the rain clouds, and as a result there will be a profound beneficial change in the climate of the region.

The afforested strip will also greatly assist the prevention of soil erosion along the coast. In rural Bengal large-scale soil erosion is called khoyái. The pine trees spread an extensive network of roots under the earth, compacting the soil particles and binding them tightly together.

Besides afforestation there should also be large-scale cultivation along the coastal sand dunes of all varieties of melon, such as musk melon, deer melon and watermelon; and gourd, such as squat gourd. These creepers will spread out across the surface of the dunes, hence soil erosion will be prevented. (Melons grow best during the summer, the worst season for cyclones.) If sand dunes are kept uncovered, the winds from the ocean will blow the sand away and erode the coast line, reducing the area of land and encouraging the encroachment of the sea.

In the Contai Basin there is enormous potential for large-scale marine industries. For example, the cultured pearl, salt, iodine, phosphorus, oyster, conch shell and seaweed industries can all be developed.

Cultured pearls can be grown along the Contai Basin coast and sold in both the national and international markets, earning a lot of revenue. Other pearl based industries can also be established. This kind of enterprise will strengthen the rural economy of an undeveloped area. The cultured pearl industry brought prosperity to the fishermen along the coast of Japan. The Contai Basin has enormous potential for developing cultured pearls.

Within the one mile wide afforested coastal strip, salt manufacturing units may be established at various places. Salt tanks may also be constructed at different points along the coast. This industry will create direct and indirect employment for hundreds of families, and the chronic unemployment problem of the Contai Basin will be alleviated to some extent. If the salt industry is developed, West Bengal will not have to depend upon Gujarat, Maharashtra or South India for its supply of salt. This will also help check the outflow of capital from West Bengal, so the state will experience overall growth.

In the Bay of Bengal along the coastal area of the Contai Basin there are many types of seaweed, which can supply iodine, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, sodium chloride and other valuable chemicals. On the basis of these chemicals, a number of chemical industries can be established in the region. Due to the abundance of iodine, pharmaceutical industries can also be developed.

Along the Contai seashore various types of beautiful oysters and conch shells are available, which can be utilized to make ornaments, house decorations, handicrafts and a variety of other products.

In the sea along the Contai Basin many types of seaweed and aquatic plants grow which can be used to produce various medicines and protein rich foods. Seaweed processing factories can be built at various places along the coast. Most seaweeds belong to the grass family of plants, and vegetarians can eat the protein from seaweeds of this group. However, if the protein collected from a particular variety of seaweed causes an allergy in a person, then the protein of that variety of seaweed should be considered static for that person. Pharmaceutical industries can be established to produce protein foods and protein tablets which can be used as both food and medicine.

Cash crops such as coconut, squat gourd, melons of all varieties, cashew nut, jackfruit, chiku, betel nut, betel leaf and banana can be grown in abundance.

The soil of the southern and southeast portion of Midnapore district is saline, which is why coconut grows very well there. Large quantities of coconuts can be grown in the adjoining area of Contai for the same reason. The hybrid variety of coconut from Kerala produces fruits within only five years and can grow abundantly in the Contai Basin. The leaves can be used as fuel and the small branches as broom sticks. The kernels can be pressed to produce oil, thus the coconut oil industry can be profitably developed. Coconut oil can be used as both a hair oil and as an edible oil. A network of small-scale or cooperative coconut industries can be established in the Contai Basin to supply coconut oil throughout West Bengal and the northeastern states of India. Even the shell of the coconut can be used to produce various commodities. Thus, in every village there is the potentiality to develop cottage industries.

Coconut milk can be bottled and sold in distant places as a cold drink, coconut pulp can be used in the sweet industry, and the trunk of the coconut tree can be used in the house building industry. Coconut husks are used in the mat and window screen industries, dehydrated coconuts are used in ayurvedic medicines, while in Bengal there is a large market for coconut delicacies. These industries can also create a lot of income for the local people. In fact if coconuts are grown on a large scale in the Contai Basin, the local economy will be transformed automatically, and the standard of living of the people will be greatly increased.

The beach in the Contai-Junput-Digha region is very wide, so it is easy to grow squat gourd and melons profitably beside the seashore. Where the land does not become submerged by sea water, poor farmers can improve their economic condition by cultivating squat gourd throughout the year. Melons can also grow in abundance. In hot countries like India, melons are in great demand. Melons and squat gourd are some of the popular cash crops of the area.

Cashew nuts are also a very profitable cash crop in India and abroad. The soil and weather of the Contai Basin is quite congenial for cashew nuts. Through the application of modern agricultural science, the quality of the cashew nut harvest can be greatly increased. Cashew nuts can be fried and packed or eaten raw, while cashew nut powder can be used to make sweets. The local farmers can earn a good livelihood by utilizing this valuable cash crop in various ways.

Jackfruit is also a very lucrative cash crop. Jackfruit is very nutritious, so villagers can eat the raw fruit to improve their health, and the juice can be canned or bottled and sold in the market at profitable rates. Dried jackfruit seeds can be used as an alternative to potatoes. Potatoes have been in use in Bengal and India for the last few hundred years, but prior to that the people of Bengal used jackfruit seeds as vegetables. The food value of jackfruit juice and seeds is very high.

The soil and weather of the Contai Basin is very congenial for chiku. Chikus will grow abundantly along the coast as far as the salty sea air travels inland, but beyond that distance the fruits will not grow so well. Chiku is a nutritious, tasty and popular cash crop.

Besides these crops, abundant betel or areca nut, betel leaf and bananas can be grown in the Contai Basin. All these are profitable cash crops.

Digha is the widest sea beach in the world. At some points the beach is two miles wide. Together with the creation of a forest along the Digha sea coast, a well-made road and a railway line should be constructed parallel to the seashore. If this is done, Digha will develop into an ideal resort for tourists from Bengal and other states of India. People from other countries will also visit Digha to enjoy the natural sea beach. If good hotels, healthy drinking water, the Danton-Digha railway line and cultural centres are arranged, Digha can become an extremely popular and attractive sea resort. This development will virtually eradicate the poverty of the people. Many new food stalls, vegetable markets and transport facilities will provide job opportunities for the local people.

A small distance from Digha an ideal port can be built at Bhograi at the confluence of the Suvarnareka River and the Bay of Bengal. The future of the Haldia Port is not very bright, so if a new port is established in the mouth of the Suvarnareka River, another large commercial centre can be added to the map of Bengal. All the commodities which are imported and exported through the Calcutta and Haldia Ports can also pass through this port, as well as all the agricultural produce, coconut, betel leaf, areca nut, melon, squat gourd, banana, etc., that can be grown in the Contai Basin. Once the port is developed, various new export industries can also be established in the Contai Basin area. The people of Contai will no longer rush to Calcutta, Durgapur, Tatanagar or Bombay in search of employment. In fact, if this port is constructed, the entire Contai Basin as well as the southern portion of Midnapore district will undergo an economic revolution.

The Howrah-Danton-Digha railway should also be constructed immediately. In the Contai subdivision there is no railway line. For the speedy development of this area, there must be a railway line between Danton and Digha, then passengers from Calcutta can travel directly to Digha. Once this railway line is established, the progress of the Contai Basin will be accelerated, facilitating the development of industry, trade and commerce throughout the subdivision. The Danton-Digha railway will be the lifeline of the Contai subdivision. In fact, if the railway line is extended to Bhograi along the coast, then the trade, commerce and industry of the entire region will rapidly develop. For railway tourists, this area will become an attractive tourist resort.

It is unfortunate that in the Contai Basin, which has abundant natural resources and enormous economic potential, no industries other than mat-making and weaving exist. During the last forty years, both the Congress and Left Front governments have proved to be totally negligent and incompetent, and both have failed to develop the economic potential of the Contai Basin. Today even the traditional mat-making and weaving industries are on the verge of collapse due to lack of capital.

The mat-makers should be encouraged to produce mat sticks on a cooperative basis through the provision of low interest loans, and proper marketing arrangements should be made so that they can sell their finished products throughout India. Their mats can also be sold to other countries which have warm climates. If this is done the poor mat-makers will earn a decent living. Ninety percent of Bengal’s mats are now produced in Midnapore district.

Likewise, the weavers of the Contai Basin should be trained to use power looms instead of outdated handlooms; then they will be able to compete with modern, large-scale weaving enterprises. The government should have encouraged the formation of weavers cooperatives, but nothing has been done so far in this regard. Handlooms should only be used to make special items such as clothing adorned with high quality embroidery, but for all other items, the weaving industry will have to conform to modern standards and preferences. If the mat-makers and weavers are properly organized and these industries are modernized and developed, thousands of families will benefit economically.

One of the sources of income for the fishermen of the Contai Basin is dried fish, which is exported to different markets in India and Bangladesh. The fish are usually dried in the open, so the bodies rot, creating a foul smell. This pollutes the atmosphere, and as a consequence negative microvita attack the coastal area.

From the viewpoint of public health and welfare, this type of fish production cannot be supported. With the help of modern technology, dehydration plants should be built to dry the fish scientifically so that no foul smell is created in the atmosphere. Both cooperative bodies and the government will have to come forward to establish such factories.

According to the principles of psycho-economy, static food production should not be encouraged, but considering the traditional habits and psychology of the people, the system of producing dried fish should not be stopped immediately unless alternative sources of livelihood are arranged for the fishermen. But because of the importance of public health, and the air pollution, the production of dried fish which has a foul smell should be stopped as soon as possible.

South Bengal

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 20 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

The ancient name for South Bengal is “Samatat”. The land is close to the sea. In colloquial Bengali, Samatat is called Bágri. On the east of Samatat is Banga Dabak, on the west is East Ráŕh, on the north is Barendrabhum and on the south is the Bay of Bengal. That is, South Bengal comprises the eastern portion of Murshidabad, and Kusthia, Nadia, 24 Parganas, Calcutta, Jessore, Khulna, Barishal, Faridpur and Patuakhali districts. On the west of South Bengal flows the Bhagirathi River, on the north the Ganges and Padma Rivers, and on the east the Padma and Jamuna Rivers. These rivers form a triangle.

The land of Samatat has been built by the alluvial soil and silt of the Ganges, Bhagirathi and Padma, and is much more recent than the soil of Ráŕh. The soil of Ráŕh is 300 million years old, whereas the soil of Samatat is only 10,000 to 15,000 years old. No relic or evidence of anything older than 8,000 years can be discovered in Samatat. The area known as the Sundarbans is still more recent. The soil of Samatat is very moist and fertile.

The climate of Samatat is humid, so the inhabitants cannot labour hard. For much of the year there is rainfall. The people have had to survive against extreme heat and heavy rain, so they have developed fighting spirit. As the land of Samatat was built with silt and alluvial soil, and with some portions which rose up from the sea bed, no mineral resources can be found. In olden times, Samatat was very famous for pearls and sea products. The merchants of Bengal used to trade in pearls which were in great demand in places such as China, Rome, Egypt and Mesopotamia.

The civilization of Samatat started about 8,000 years ago. About 700 years ago, during the early part of the Pathan rule, there was a devastating cyclone which submerged Samatat. The sea water rose about twenty feet and destroyed everything for 200 miles inland. Whatever existed within this radius – towns, cities, villages, trees, plants, animals, human beings – was totally destroyed. When the water receded, there were no living beings in the area. After some time new grass, shrubs, plants and trees began to grow. The people of Ráŕh went to Samatat with their implements, established settlements, and began farming the vast tracts of uninhabited land. New plants and trees created thick foliage and vast forests – the present Sundarbans. The people of Ráŕh cleared parts of this forest area and built villages.

The geographical features and environment of Samatat changed radically following this catastrophic cyclone, and the soil, particularly in the southern portion of 24 Parganas, became saline. The air, water and environment of Samatat also became saline. Crops do not grow well in saline soil; in fact, saline soil is almost unfit for agriculture. Mud and brick houses decay quickly due to the corrosive effect of the salinity. The saline water is useless for irrigation. The farmers of South Bengal only harvest one poor crop a year, and that with great difficulty. Due to the saline weather, the people of Samatat suffer from stomach trouble throughout the year. There are no good prospects for agriculture, trade or commerce. Once there were some medium-scale cottage industries, but these are gradually disappearing. Over and above this miserable economic condition, there is severe psycho-economic exploitation.

At one time the people of Samatat enjoyed fifty percent of Bengal’s fortune and glory. The ancient Roman historians described Bengal as Ganga-Ridi [the land between the Ganges River and Ráŕh]. Samatat made a major contribution to Bengal’s legacy, because it embodied the fighting spirit of the Bengalees. In every age the people of Samatat used to bear the brunt of foreign invasion. Foreign invaders used to enter Bengal along the South Bengal coast. The glory, natural beauty and economic prosperity of Samatat used to attract foreign visitors, but now the same region is in an extremely precarious condition because of its saline environment and the severe economic exploitation. Today South Bengal must be built anew.

About 4,000 years ago there was a valiant king in Samatat called Sagar, who had an equally valiant navy. He was the supreme commander of the navy, which patrolled the Bay of Bengal. His son, Bhagirathi, was a civil engineer who excavated a canal from Malda south to the Bay of Bengal to facilitate improved agriculture in East Ráŕh and the southern portion of Bengal. This canal has now taken the form of the river Bhagirathi. In old Bengali rhymes the Bhagirathi was called “Bhaga’s Canal”. The Bay of Bengal was called “Ságara”.

The greatest curse of Samatat is its salinity, which is why this region is called “Saline Bengal”. Suitable steps have to be taken to save South Bengal from the detrimental influence of salinity. First, the soil has to be made free from salinity, and for that sweet water has to be brought from the rivers of Ráŕh, such as the Suvarnareka, Kangsavati, Damodar, Ajaya, Mayuraksi and Rupnarayana. The sweet water should be channelled through huge underground pipes so that the ponds, tanks, canals, rivers and rivulets will again be supplied with sweet water. At present, the rivers of Samatat are extremely saline. All the rivers should be filled with sweet water except those parts near the confluence of the Bay of Bengal.

Once the soil gets back its natural composition and is free from salinity, it will be easy to produce four paddy crops in a year and various other cash crops. Moreover, when the soil and water are desalinated, the degree of salinity in the air will also decline considerably. This will provide a congenial environment for improved agriculture, trade and commerce, and industrial development.

The amount of power needed to supply the industrial centres can be derived from the ebb and flow of the tides in the Bay of Bengal. Small-scale cottage industries can be started in every home in South Bengal so that even the women of the farming families can take part in industry. This approach will go a long way toward solving the widespread unemployment problem. South Bengal must be self-sufficient in power production, and windmills can also be used as a supplementary source of power generation.

The very survival of South Bengal depends upon its freedom from salinity. Most of the rivers and canals are now silted and reduced to stagnant reservoirs. They have to be reclaimed, and a proper drainage system must be built. At one time South Bengal was famous for its shipbuilding industry and there were a number of shipbuilding yards. Even 150 years ago large ships were built from these centres.

Another profitable industry in South Bengal was the salt industry. Salt production in the past used to meet the demands of all India, and the surplus was exported. The British systematically destroyed the salt industry, and as a result about 500,000 people were deprived of their traditional means of livelihood. To reorganize the economy of South Bengal, the salt industry should be rebuilt. Since olden days Samatat has experienced a series of political misfortunes, but the people of this region must once again rise up and overcome all obstacles.

In the coastal areas of South Bengal there are various types of seaweed which are useful for the pharmaceutical industry. Through the development of agro-industries and agrico-industries, the local population can solve their unemployment problems, while cottage industries, small-scale industries and cooperative enterprises can provide income to the poor. Once the soil, water and air are made free from the pernicious effects of salinity, the people will get back their vitality. They will enjoy a new lease of life and experience better health, greater longevity and a higher standard of living.

Tripura

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 19 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Since the dawn of human civilization Tripura has been a part of Bengal. In fact, Tripura is nearly as old as Ráŕh. Its soil, water, people and language are the same as those of Gondwanaland. The ancient Bengali people have been living in Tripura since time immemorial.

Five hundred years ago Tripura was called “Shriibhum”. The name “Tripura” is not very old. Present day Tripura, Noakhali, Hilly Tripura, Kachar, Manipur, Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts and a part of the Arakan kingdom constituted the land of Shriibhum. In old records Shriibhum was called “Upabanga”. Upa means “nearer” and Banga means “Bengal”. The original inhabitants of Upabanga were all Bengalees, except for a group of tribals called “Tipprah” who lived in one small region. About 550 years ago, these Tipprah tribals came from northern Burma under the leadership of Mu-Chang-Fa and settled in Tripura permanently. Later, they defeated the Hindu king in the area and established the kingdom of Tripura. Since that time, the part of Shriibhum under Mu-Chang-Fa was called “Tripura”, as it was the land under Tipprah administration.

Around the same time a movement for cultural synthesis under the leadership of Caetańya Mahaprabhu was going on in Bengal. Caetańya went to Tripura to preach his Vaeśńava philosophy. Mu-Chang-Fa and the members of his royal family were very impressed with Caetańya’s ideas and the rich Bengali language he spoke, so they took initiation from him. The king also embraced Bengali culture as his own culture. After that all the members of the royal family took Bengali names instead of tribal ones and adopted Bengali instead of their tribal language as the family and court language. From that time up to the last days of British rule in India, Bengali was the official language of Tripura, and Bengali culture was the culture of the region.

The Tripura tribals have their own dialect called the “Kak-Barak” dialect, which is of Burmese origin. However, this dialect does not have all the characteristics of a complete language. After independence Bengali was replaced by Hindi or English. Under the regime of the Left Front government, the communist leaders, in an effort to materialize their separatist designs, recognized the Kak-Barak dialect as the official state language. They imposed this dialect, which is spoken by 700,000 tribals, on the 1,750,000 Bengali people in the state. Thus, the communists dealt a severe blow to the cultural synthesis which had been taking place between the original Bengalees and the tribals in Tripura for the previous several hundred years.

During the ancient Hindu, Buddhist, Pathan and Mughal periods, and even in the British period, Tripura was economically self-sufficient, but Tripura’s economy received a severe set back with the partition of Bengal in 1947. According to the decision of the Radcliffe Commission, the part of Tripura rich in agricultural potentialities was included in East Pakistan, and the other part, consisting of hills, forests and jungles, was given to the Indian Union. Thus, in the constitutional structure of the Indian Union, the hilly, undeveloped areas took the shape of the economically shattered state of present-day Tripura.

Since independence, Tripura has fallen prey to negligence, deprivation and exploitation. In the interests of Indian capitalism, Tripura has been kept at the mercy of the central government, and has barely been able to maintain its existence. Now the abject poverty of the 2,450,000 people of Tripura has become a weapon in the hands of the political parties in the state, who try to use it for their own political gain. Severe economic insecurity and an atmosphere of political violence have been deliberately encouraged in Tripura to check the awakening political consciousness of the people. Tripura has been forced to pass through many traumatic and violent events because of the manipulation of political leaders. In addition, nearly seventy percent of Tripura’s land has been distributed among the 700,000 tribals through the Autonomous District Council Act, depriving many of the 1,750,000 Bengali people of land. The present situation in the state is the result of a far-reaching anti-Bengali campaign by the central government and an anti-national, separatist conspiracy by the communists in Tripura.

Despite Tripura’s current economic and political instability, the region has a very bright future because it is rich in natural resources. The topography of Tripura is shaped like a saucer – the outer border area is more elevated than the inner central portion. In this respect it resembles Ireland. The main differences between the two are that the hills and subterranean rock structure of Tripura are composed of granite, so Tripura is more rocky, but Ireland is colder. Although Ireland is not very developed, it can serve as a useful model while preparing socio-economic developmental programmes for Tripura.

In ancient times, large forests inhabited by elephants and rhinoceroses grew in the inner part of Tripura, and the provincial towns and agricultural areas were located around the borders of the outer rim. The soil in the inner portion is very suitable for growing cashew nuts, pineapples and bananas. Generally, the soil covering the granite rocks throughout Tripura is sticky soil which is ideal for agriculture, and especially for growing oranges. The border area touching Bangladesh is a rain-shadow area.

There is tremendous agricultural potentiality in Tripura. However, due to the granite bedrock, the aman variety of paddy will not grow well; the áus variety grows better. Áus paddy may be followed by chilli cultivation. Chilli is a good cash crop because it is in great demand in Bangladesh. When the land is still wet after harvesting the áus paddy, dry chillies can be sown. Dry chillies need to be watered like wheat. Where there is a scarcity of water, small gram can also be grown.

Huge quantities of red skinned potatoes can be grown as in Ireland, where the people eat a lot of potatoes and porridge. Tripura can grow enough potatoes to feed the whole of Assam, and the powered potato industry can flourish. On the higher land potatoes, pineapples, and cashew nuts can be grown, while bananas can be grown on the lower land. Ginger of all varieties – white, yellow and black – can also be grown. Large quantities of arum can also be grown, but arum takes nearly one year to mature. You should also know the types and locations of the mixed crops.

Tripura can grow the second best bamboo in the world after Mizoram, hence paper mills can be started. Hollow bamboo (phánpá bansh) is the best type for paper production.

More sugar beet than sugar cane should be cultivated, because four sugar beet crops a year can be grown in Tripura instead of just one sugar cane crop. Sugar beet can produce sugar but not gúr, and it is a good cash crop. Gúr can be produced from sugar cane and the waste can be used to manufacture good quality paper. The seeds of sugar beet should be grown in cold climates, and the best places are Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir. However, it is best to produce seeds in one’s own land. Both agro-industries and agrico-industries can be started.

Alcohol, pharmaceuticals, medicinal plants and silk can all be produced in Tripura, and inferior quality coal is available. Once upon a time Tripura was part of a sargasso sea, so there is also scope for producing oil.

You should have a blended knowledge of the soil condition, the river systems, irrigation, the power and energy supply, the mineral resources, the culture of the people, and the agricultural, horticultural and industrial possibilities. The future of Tripura is very bright if socio-economic planning is done in a proper way.

Bihar

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 19 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Human beings are not isolated beings. Each human being is universal. The longing for physical and psychic pabula comes from Neohumanism, and these longings should be guaranteed by PROUT. Neohumanism is universal humanism. Not a single person should be confined to a particular area. Each and every human being is universal. PROUT is the practical approach. It keeps in view factors such as water, soil, body, mind and mental faculties in combination, in association, and in friendly contact with other developed creatures. PROUT and Neohumanism will free the world from all difficulties.

To achieve all this a healthy economy is essential, and for a healthy economy there must be proper planning. Planning should include factors such as population, local conditions, socio-economic potentiality, the sentimental legacy of the people, and the availability of raw materials; otherwise economic progress is not possible.

In a healthy economy raw materials should come from the local area. Industries which are based on imported raw materials are always weak industries, sick industries. A sick economy depends upon raw materials from outside – it depends upon inputs. For example, the Barauni Oil Refinery in Bihar is a sick industry because it depends upon crude oil from Assam. If there is any disturbance in Assam or if India is balkanized, then the refinery will have to close down. The establishment of this refinery was a foolish act. It does not represent a healthy economic structure. It is a sick industry, a foolish industry, a stupid industry!

The economy of the area and the social life of the people should be balanced. The development of big industries alone should be avoided, because in such industries the local people have no place. As one moves from the north to the south of Bihar, there is increasing surplus labour.

In Bihar many types of healthy industries can be established. For example, in northern Bihar healthy industries based on concentrated alcohol derived from sugar beet and sugar cane can be established, and the residual pulp can be used in the paper industry. Fossil fuels are fast diminishing; they should be replaced by concentrated alcohol. Motor cars can run on this fuel.

To properly organize and accelerate socio-economic development, Bihar should be divided into five socio-economic units – Mithila, Magadh, Nagpuri, Angadesh and Bhojpuri. Magadh, Nagpuri and Angadesh are the three socio-economic units which are entirely within Bihar. Mithila and Bhojpuri include portions outside Bihar. Let us briefly discuss a few features of each of these units.

Mithila includes eight districts from India and four districts from Nepal. The boundaries of this socio-economic unit are as follows – in the north the Himalayas, in the south the Ganges, in the east Angadesh, and in the west the Kali-Koshi River. The first Maethilii literature was written 900 years ago by the first poet of Mithila, Jyotiriishvar Thákur, and was called Varńa Ratnákara.

In the Mithila area of Bihar, Maethil Brahmins, Káyasthas and Dogamayas speak Maethilii and the rest of the population, including the Bhumihars, speak Angika. The Dogamayas are neither Bhumihars nor Maethils, and they only speak Maethilii. Groups such as the Rajputs, Yadavas, Kurmis, Kuiris, and Káyasthas such as the Amustha Káyasthas and Srivástava Káyasthas, speak Angika. The Maethil Brahmins speak Maethilii at home but Angika outside the home, and the Dogamayas do the same, therefore Maethilii is not the people’s language there.

The Paswans and Pasis also speak Angika and not Maethilii. There are two communities of Pasis – the Trisuniya Pasis and the Byadhá Pasis. Those who live in Madhusalai are Trisuniya Pasis and speak Angika. Those who live in Magadh are Byadhá Pasis and speak Magahii.

The Trisuniya Pasis have black complexions and they speak in a direct way. The Byadhá Pasis are dark skinned, but not as black as the Trisuniya Pasis.

The Brahmins always speak Maethilii in their homes but Angika outside. Where all the castes speak Maethilii, the language of the non-Maethil Brahmins, the non-Maethil Káyasthas and the non-Dogamayas is influenced by Angika.

Around Muzzaffarpur there is rich, loose alluvial soil which is extremely good for horticulture, tropical fruits, juicy Mediterranean fruits, and pulses. Nitrogenous soil is not very good for winter paddy, though it is good for growing jute. However, the jute industry does not have a bright future, so it should not be encouraged. Rather, the remi silk industry and the artificial synthetic fibre industry should be developed.

Bihar must not try to establish two or three oil refineries because they will be uneconomic. Moreover, although there are deposits of oil under the ground on the Nepal border, no steel industry should be developed because there are not sufficient quantities of red hematite or coal. Nevertheless, many healthy industries based on local raw materials can be developed. For example, high-quality concentrated alcohol fuel can be produced from sugar beet and sugar cane. Concentrated alcohol can replace fossil fuels, as the stock of crude oil is fast diminishing.

In addition, the hardened bamboo industry can be developed. If the internal knots in bamboo poles are removed, hardened bamboo pipes which are as strong as steel can be manufactured. The entire Himalayan foothills have abundant bamboo, but no bamboo industry has so far been established in Muzzaffarpur. If this industry is properly developed, it can capture the world market. You should go to the public and explain all these things.

About 4,000 years ago Magahii was the most important language in all India. Magahii is 5,000 years old and it has its own speciality which is not found in any other language. The four dialects of Magahii are Aurangabad, Central Magahii of Nalanda, Mungeria and Magaribadh. Magahii is spoken by nearly 30 million people and is the most widely spoken language in Bihar.

Patna, Biharsharif and Gaya are big cities which have a population of more than 100,000 people. The entire population of Bihar is about 80 million people.

What is the topographical order of Magadh? Where are the different stages of the main rivers? In the rainy season, sufficient water passes through rivers such as the Falgu and Sone. In the plain stage of Mithila there is very soft soil, and this is why the rivers in Mithila always change their courses. No river has its delta stage in Mithila – the hill stages of all are in Nepal, the plain stages in Mithila and the delta stages in Bengal. So to tame the rivers, the cooperation of Bengal and Nepal is required. Unlike in Mithila, in Magadh the hill, plain and delta stages of the rivers are all in Magadh, except for the Suvarnarekha, which flows just on the border line between southern Magadh and northern Chattisgarh. The Koel River must be tamed through the cooperation of Magadh and Kaoshal. Magadh and Kaoshal share many common problems.

Although Singhbhum district is in Bihar, it should be included in the socio-economic unit of Bangalistan. It has red laterite soil and the land is full of valleys and hills. The northern portion is located between hills, ranges and valleys, and includes the Suvarnareka, Soiyaya, Khokaia and Keol Valleys. The hills are not very rocky and there is scope for agricultural development. The rivers are seasonal, though they do not dry up completely in the dry season. This region is fit for thermal power, if not hydroelectric power. In the southern part of Singhbhum district there is a copper belt, cheria clay, thorium and uranium.

Balbhumi is fertile but Sunderi district is flat. In the northwest as far as Julebiamor and in the extreme east on the northern side of the Suvarnareka River, iron ore, bauxite, manganese and copper can be found.

Although there are many rivers in Singhbhum district, there is very little developed irrigation. The soil is laterite. Sixty percent of the indigenous population are Mahatos. The Santals came here 200 years ago from Madhya Pradesh in the Bengali year 1176. There are also Ho-mundas, Singh-mundas and Khangar-mundas. The Singh-mundas came from the eastern portion of Ranchi.

The entire area of Ráŕh was part of old Gondwanaland, which included Ranchi, Purulia, western Madhya Pradesh, Burdwan, Bhanjabhum, Surdargarh and some portion of Orissa. This is the place where the first humans were born. It is the first human habitat in the whole world, but people do not know how to develop it. Throughout this area, the per capita income is minimal. Rice comes from Midnapore district. From Dhanbhad to Ranchi, rice comes from Burdwan district. In Lohardaga and the western portion of Chotanagpur, the per capita income is also minimal, while in the Visnupur subdivision it is a bit better. The rivers are still wild, and only the Kangsavati River has been partly tamed.

What are the fruits and cash crops that can be grown in Singhbhum district? The soil is good for horticulture. Jackfruit grows well. It can produce alcohol and is also a good cash crop. The nuts of the jackfruit can be ground to make flour which can produce good quality bread. The vege-meat and raw sugar industries can be started, while cashew nuts and masámbi can be grown. Cashew nuts are one of the best cash crops. If bone dust and water is added to the trees, the nuts will be sweet. The area is also good for growing custard-apple, apple and madder, although madder has little commercial value. Sandalwood also grows well, especially in dry laterite soil, but it is not a cash crop because it takes twenty years to mature. Maul can be grown, and from this flour can be made. Pomegranate can also be grown, and if it is fertilized with bone dust it will be sweet. Two crops of paddy and wheat can be grown in a year. On the plains, red skinned potato can be grown, and potato flour, dried potato and potato powder can be produced. White skinned potato is not so good for health. Flower gardens can be grown and the essence can be extracted. Laterite soil is very good for growing roses. Medicinal plants and herbs can be grown also, as well as small grapes. There is no dearth of water in Singhbhum district.

Is there any possibility of mangological development in Patna district? What about the mango and papain industries? Papain is good for the stomach. It is especially good for dysentery and other stomach diseases. Mango and guava are two horticultural items that can be grown here. What types of mangoes should be cultured? Where and how can they be grown? What sort of fertilizers do they need? You should know the answers to all these questions.

In Magadh the Ganges flows from west to east. On one side of the Ganges is Magadh and on the other side is Mithila. The soil beside the Ganges is riverine alluvial and is good for growing mango, lychee, banana and lemon. Some portions to the south of the Ganges in Patna – which in Sanskrit is Pataliputra and in Hindi Patna – and some portions to the north of the Ganges also contain soft alluvial soil. In the southern part of the Ganges for ten miles towards Patna, the soil is fit for mangoes. Digha is within a ten mile radius of the Ganges, as is Maner. Beyond ten miles, there is clay soil which is not fit for mangoes. Further out the soil becomes laterite and Gaya mangoes can be grown. The land around Mokama is not fit for mangoes as the soil is hard. In Begusarai soft alluvial soil is found, so mangoes can be grown. In Magadh – in Gaya and Navada for example – there are no mangoes, and if they are grown, they will be sour and contain worms. Thus, the soil is alluvial towards the south up to ten miles from the Ganges, then it is clay after ten miles, beyond that it is hard and laterite, and towards Gondwanaland it is laterite. North of Patna is suitable for lychee, mango and lemon, but not suitable for papain fruits such as papaya or guava. While guava can be grown, the large type such as that found in Allahabad cannot be grown. In the southern part of the Ganges, papaya grows better than in the north and the papain industry can be developed. The papayas will be small but sweet. Mangoes will also grow well there. In the Ganges Basin mango and lychee can be grown. The Malda and Murshidabad districts of Bengal are also very good for mango cultivation.

For agriculture, we must consider factors such as the soil condition, soil blending, climate, water supply and the types of land. For example, there are several types of land according to how the soil holds water. First, high and dry land is barren land and retains little or no water in the soil. If water and fertilizers are added to the land, it can be made productive, and some fruit crops, beans (kurti) and lemon grass for the cosmetic industry can be grown. The land at Ánanda Nagar is high, dry land. Secondly, barren plain land will hold water if it is properly tamed. It should be transformed into farming land – into horticultural and agricultural fields – and for this irrigation is essential. Thirdly, average land will hold water longer than barren plain land. Fourthly, moist fertile land is suitable for most types of farming and retains water well. The best land is moist fertile land, followed by average land, then barren plain land, while high dry land is the worst. Farmers do not know how to fully utilize the various types of land and soil.

In Bhanjabhum, Surdargarh, Singhbhum, Keonjhar, Jhargram, Purulia, East Ranchi, Vyaghrabhum and Dhanbhad there is hard laterite soil which is ideal for horticulture, provided the soil is properly manured. Dumka has different soil from the rest of Ráŕh as it is less laterite. After proper manuring, mangoes can be grown in Deoghar district. In Patna district, especially the northern portion, castor can be grown. Paddy grows better in plain land, whereas wheat grows better in dry land. The word “wheat” comes from white. Wheat means “whiteness”.

Rivers will cut paths right through waterlogged soil, but it is more difficult for them to cut through barren plain land or hard laterite soil of the clay type. So while constructing a bridge, both sides of the bridge should be built on foundations of hard soil. While constructing the Rajendra Bridge over the Ganges at Mokama, the soil towards Mokama is plain land, but towards Barauni the land is waterlogged, which means that the bridge can be easily washed away.

If farmers adopt the cooperative system they will enjoy many benefits. For example, the land wasted in constructing boundaries around individual plots will be utilized, significantly increasing the area of farming land. Land of the same level should be consolidated into one area for cooperative farming, but if the land is wavy, the area of the consolidated land should be smaller. In wavy land and land which contains small river valleys, small-scale inexpensive irrigation projects which cost only one to two hundred thousand rupees should be started. Such amounts can easily be arranged through cooperative effort. In addition, mixed farming and crop rotation can also be done through cooperatives. At Anandanagar there can be four crops in a year. I have already said which fertilizers and manure are best for what types of land. The fertilizer used for farming should depend on the type of soil.

Sericulture can be developed on barren land according to the climatic conditions. In Bihar, endy and muuṋgá silk can grow well, but not mulberry silk. Endy silk is golden and muuṋgá silk is reddish.

Standard Nagpurii is the language spoken in Gumla. In Ranchi the language is influenced by Bengali and Magahii. Magahii, Maethilii, Bhojpurii and Nagpurii are not recognized by the government of India. Maethilii is recognized by Calcutta University. Angika is not even recognized by the Sahitya Academy, the government of Bihar or the government of India.

What are the soil problems and rock conditions of Palamu district? What are the main rivers? Palamu district starts in the northwest corner of Chotanagpur and is a small place. In the Sone River Basin in the west of Palamu district, the Sone River flows from southwest to northeast, while in the east of Palamu district it flows from northwest to southeast. In the heart of the district is the Koel River.

Palamu was once the central portion of Gondwanaland and the rock is sedimentary. The Damodar Valley is located in the eastern portion and the central west of Palamu district. Along the Damodar Valley there are coal deposits. In the western portion of the river valley there are also coal deposits, old hard rock, metamorphosed rock, tungsten, hard metals, iron ore and red hematite. This is a Magahii speaking area. Latehar subdivision and Garhwa are also Magahii speaking areas. The other side of the Sone River in Madhya Pradesh is also Magahii speaking. The red soil is laterite soil.

The history and annals of Palamu are unique. It is the old habitat and abode of the Oraon tribe who speak the Kuruk language, a tongue of Dravidian origin, and a sister language of Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam. There used to be Rajput kings in this area, but after they were overthrown, blood relationships with outsiders began. Palamu was independent up to the Pathan period. In the Mughal period Palamu became part of the Mughal empire and paid tribute to the Nawab of Bengal, but practically it remained independent. Gaw in Malda district was the capital of Bengal in the Mughal period, and later it became part of British Bengal. In the British period, the headquarters was changed to Hazaribagh.

In Hazaribagh district most people speak Magahii; the biggest river is the Damodar. The extreme south and central is the industrial belt which has great industrial potential. There is also a mica belt, and the major portion of it is Koderma, which is now separated from Hazaribagh and included in the newly formed district of Giridih. Coal can be found in the Damodar Valley.

How did Hazaribagh get its name? Hazaribagh was named after Harailal Singh Deo of the Ratu clan, who owned a large estate. He died in a clash with Shish Nath, the last of the Chotanagpur kings. In Hazaribagh district subterranean minerals, forestry and agriculture can be developed. The soil is fertile.

What are the problems of Nagpuri and the lower Lohardaga district? How are you to solve the irrigation problem of lower Lohardaga district? Where shall you get the water from? Some water is available near Netarhat, where good laterite soil is also available, but this area suffers from lack of water due to deforestation. Magadh also suffers from deforestation. So for development schemes, large-scale afforestation everywhere is most essential.

Lohardaga district has mixed soil. It is a very small district carved out of Ranchi. The main tribe there is the Oraon tribe who speak Kuruk among themselves and Nagpurii or Sadari with others. Kuruk is of the Tanabhagat group. The Mundas speak Sadari. Bauxite can be found there, and an aluminium factory should be established. Hardly any industry has been established from the locally available raw materials. The land currently produces only one crop of paddy a year, hence the people live in extreme poverty. Sixty-five percent of the population are tribals and thirty-five percent are non-tribals. The non-tribals are blacksmiths and traders.

Angadesh is more downtrodden than the Kaoshal region of Orissa. There is no industry in Angadesh, and even the people’s language, Angika, is not recognized. The people’s language should not be suppressed. If your mother tongue is not recognized, nobody will recognize you.

None of the mother tongues of Bihar are recognized in the Indian constitution, and that is why a Bihari has to live like a second-class citizen while many other minor languages are recognized. The government of India, the National Sahitya Academy, the Sangit Academy and the Bihar government have not recognized the Angika language. In fact, not a single mother tongue in Bihar has been recognized either by the government of India or the government of Bihar. This reflects badly on the government leaders. Primary school education should be in the people’s language, and primary school books in Angika should be introduced.

In Angadesh the indigenous population is being exploited by outsiders. The Angiks are poor and destitute, and most of them depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Their lot can only be improved when some progressive farming methods are adopted. For example, those parts of Purnia, Katihar, Madhepura and northern Bhagalpur which extend up to six miles from the southern bank of the Ganges River should grow cash crops successfully. An integrated system for growing certain cash crops is outlined below.

Kerala hybrid variety of coconuts: Before planting each sapling a hole three feet deep should be dug, and five kilos of salt should be put into the bottom of the hole. The salt should be covered with a layer of sand, then the sapling should be planted erect, and the roots compacted with more sand to fill the hole. A pyramid of sand should be made above the level of the soil around the base of the sapling. Leaf mould should be placed at the top of the pyramid. This will be gradually absorbed into the soil. In the event of a shortage of rainfall, the saplings should be irrigated by a sprinkler system which will resemble rain for the plants, thus enabling them to grow in a natural way.

Black pepper farming: If black peppers are planted beside coconut trees, no further land will be required as the black peppers will climb the trees. Black peppers do not need any fertilizers other than leaf mould and cow dung manure.

Areca nut cultivation of the Coochbehar variety: This can be cultivated very successfully on the same land as the above crops. Cow dung manure should be administered once a year before the rainy season starts. All the old dead leaves of the areca nut plants should be removed and the plant should be cleaned in September and October.

Pineapples: A good harvest of pineapples can be gained in those fields of Purnia, Katihar and Madhepura districts, where the rainfall is more than six inches. In salty soil also there can be good harvests. In Purnia, the Siliguri variety will produce a good harvest, and in Katihar and Madhepura, the Baruipur (Calcutta) variety is suitable.

Red pepper and green chilli: Red peppers and green chillies of the Kalna (Burdwan) variety will yield good harvests as second grade seasonal cash crops if they are grown in the northern and southern portions of Angadesh respectively. Green chilli of the sowa variety will grow better in southern Angadesh. The manure used should be mustard cakes, custard cakes and baranj cakes – that is, the residue of these seeds after the oil has been extracted.

Mangoes: Malda district to the north of Angadesh will grow good crops of fajali, langara, ásina, svajpuri, lakśmanbhag, etc. – in fact, all varieties of mangoes. Where there is a scarcity of land, these varieties can be grown in large earthen pots. The manure should be a mixture of twenty-five percent cow dung compost, twenty-five percent leaf mould compost, twenty-five percent bone fertilizer and twenty-five percent crushed bricks. Dead lime can replace bone fertilizer.

Some other crops: In southern Angadesh, grapes will be very good seasonal crops. Jackfruit of the Bankura variety and jám of the red Jammu variety also grow very well.

In the hilly land of southern Angadesh, the following can be produced – cloth, carpets and mats from the fibres of the sisal variety of bamboo (ram bamboo); silk from custard plants; and mulberry and mulberry silkworms. In addition, in southern Angadesh papaya can be grown, and from this papain can be produced. Rice bran oil and cement can also be manufactured from rice husks. In northern Angadesh, jute cultivation can be used to produce match sticks, and paper can be produced from the residue of sugar cane, and also from maize or corn cobs.

In the red soil of Angadesh, the Hyderabad variety of grapes, the Bankura or Ánanda Nagar variety of papaya, cashew nuts and jackfruits of the Bankura variety, jám of the red Jammu variety, mangoes of the Ráŕhi Bombay and Ráŕhi Madhukalkali varieties will grow very well.

There is a tri-portion of land, which includes parts of Nepal, Bihar and Bengal, where Bhojpurii, Angika, Maethilii and Bengali are spoken. The Angika speaking part of this tri-portion was conquered by Prithvi Naryan Saha of Nepal in the first phase of the British Raj in the battle of Plassey in 1757. The Angika speaking population of Nepal live in Morang district, which has a provincial city at Viratnagar. The Angika speaking portion of Nepal should be included in Angadesh. This is a geo-economic necessity. There should also be a train from Bhagalpur to the Himalayas. The indigenous people of Nepal include the Sherpa, Bhutia, Newari and Lepcha.

What about underground wealth in Angadesh? In the western portion of Godda district there is limestone, dolomite, China clay and coal. In the eastern portion there is no dolomite, only coal. Red hematite and iron ore can also be found around Jamalpur, but not on a large scale. Recently gold deposits were discovered in the Sonu block of Jamui district, and there are coal deposits in Lalmotia.

The cheapest electricity in Angadesh is thermal electricity from coal. There is no need to purchase coal from outside as is being done now. Solar power can also be generated in the plain areas where the land is wavy.

Northern Angadesh suffers from lack of proper irrigation and drainage, and from waterlogging. Southern Angadesh suffers from lack of proper irrigation. The land is to be systematized for proper water management. For example, as there is a scarcity of water in the south, the surplus water form northern Angadesh should be drained and shifted to southern Angadesh. If oil from Assam can travel all the way to Bihar by pipe, why not water from northern Angadesh to southern Angadesh?

The Kosi belt in the north – that is, the land around the Kosi river – remains submerged due to waterlogging. The entire Kosi belt is a waterlogged area. The sediments carried by this river have a bad effect on the fertility of the soil, hence the water should not be used for irrigation in the rainy season. Drainage does not mean the wastage of water. If the water from the Kosi River goes into the Ganges and the Bay of Bengal, it will be wasted.

There is immense agricultural potentiality in Angadesh, and many more agro-industries and agrico-industries can be developed. You should get three crops in a season from the land, but now there is only one crop. In southern Banka there is only one crop of paddy and no other crop in a year.

Recently a new district was created called “Chandan Kotaria” at the meeting point of Magadh, Angadesh and Bengal. It was formed out of Jamui, Deoghar and a little bit of Banka. This district is very dry but has very fertile land which is ideal for agriculture.

The main industries in Angadesh are agro-industries and agrico-industries. In the extreme southern portion limestone can be found. Limestone and China clay are also available in western Godda, so a cement factory may be started there. From rice bran and limestone, cement can be made – these are two of the main raw materials for cement.

Dinajpur was the main centre of the Kaevartas 2,000 years ago. From there they migrated to many places, including Purnia, but they still speak Bengali in their homes. Their complexions are not very dark – more an earthen colour. They have round faces, are not tall and work mostly in agriculture. Previously they were the main community of Purnia, which is just to the west of Dinajpur. They follow all the Bengali customs, such as the Bengali system of marriage.

In Purnia District, there are four Bengali speaking communities – the Káyasthas, the Haris, the Doms, who generally burn dead bodies for a living, and the upper caste Sadgopes, who are milkmen. (The Haris and Doms are Scheduled Castes). These four groups generally speak either Bengali or a mixture of Bengali and Angika in the home. Though some of the Kaevartas have the surname “Mandal”, most have the title “Vishvas”.

Besides the Sadgopes, there are many other groups in the Gope community who have migrated from Bengal and who still follow Bengali customs. Their language is now the local language, and they are called the “Corygopes” or the “Corywallahs”. Some of the Gope community migrated to Bihar from Murshidabad, and Burdwan and Birbhum in Ráŕh, to check the spread of the Muslims, because they were experts in stick fighting. This group is called the “Ghosis” and their surname is “Ghosh”.

I want a detailed scheme – an ideal scheme or blue print – for Angadesh, Magadh, Nagpuri and Kaoshal from north to south. Angadesh is almost plain, except the southern portion. The other three socio-economic units are mixed. Magadh is plain and wavy land, while Nagpuri and Kaoshal are wavy and valley land. Utilize each and every inch of land. Utilize each and every drop of water.

Exploitation exists in every sphere of life – the social, economic, cultural and psychic. Exploiters do not care whether an area is a surplus labour or deficit labour area. Bhojpuri is a surplus labour area, while parts of Bengal and Assam are deficit labour areas. All of these areas are exploited. Angadesh and Assam are the worst affected areas. In Angadesh, Bhagalpur and Monghyr are the only cities, and in these two cities outside exploiters dominate. They have no sympathy for the local people, their language or their sentimental legacy. Ranchi is also controlled by outside exploiters, while in Orissa land and assets are in the hands of outsiders. In India elections are very costly. Money for elections comes from both local capitalists and foreign agencies.

Bhojpuri covers several districts including Gorakhpur and the entire Bhojpur area except Bastar district.

There are three scripts in Bhojpuri. The first is Nagari script, which is used to the west of Allahabad. Max Mueller wrote the Vedas in Nagari script, which was named “Devanagari” 800 years ago. The second is Sháradá script which is used to the northwest of Allahabad and is 1,300 years old. The third is Kut́ila script which is used to the east of Allahabad. It is the script for Oriya, Bengali, Bhojpurii, Maethilii and Angika and is 1,100 years old.

The mother tongue of Krśńa was Shaurseni Prákrta. Later on Braja emerged from Shaurseni Prákrta, and is spoken to the west of Allahabad. The Muslim poet Raskhan, and Rahim and Surdas, were the poets of Prákrta. The Agrawals of Braja belong to the Braja area and are not Marawaris. The Muslims of Allahabad speak Avadhi, although the Shias speak Urdu.

The three large cities of the Bhojpuri area – Varanasi, Gorakhpur and Chapra – have no industries. All the assets are in the hands of outside exploiters. Let there be a fight against outside exploitation. Let the people understand the meaning of polarization!

What are the agricultural possibilities of Gorakhpur and Deoria districts in Uttar Pradesh? Are they the same? Deoria is more riverine than Gorakhpur, so more jute can be grown in Deoria than in Gorakhpur. If wool is mixed with jute, good quality jute’s-wool can be prepared. Good jute can be grown near Nepal.

Transportation and marketing should be kept in mind when developing all agro-industries. For example, if horticulture is developed in the ten mile radius around a big city such as Gorakhpur, it will be more economically beneficial for the farmers than if the orchards are located further away.

You should know your country and the entire globe. Know all their secrets. The fight to restore one’s mother language is a fight for dignity. Each mother language should be spoken and developed. While working for the welfare and development of your country, also spend some time for the development of your mother language.

Bangladesh

Published in:
Prout in a Nutshell Volume 4 Part 19 [a compilation]
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

Bangladesh is an extremely poor country. It produces untanned hide and raw jute, which it sells in the international market, but it has virtually no metallic minerals and only some non-metallic minerals such as petroleum and natural gas. So we may say that Bangladesh is a deficit, undeveloped country with only few resources. For such a country barter is the best system of international trade.

If Bangladesh sells manufactured jute and tanned leather instead of raw jute and untanned leather, will it be better off? A huge capital investment is required to properly develop the jute industry, and as there are many synthetic fibres today which compete with jute, such a large capital investment is hardly worthwhile. Moreover, different types of synthetic leather which are more durable than leather products are also readily available. So on the one hand jute is being replaced by artificial fibre, and on the other hand leather is being replaced by synthetic leather.

The experience of India shows that the jute industry is a sick industry because it is not able to compete with synthetic fibres. Many Indian jute growers have stopped producing raw jute, so manufacturers now have less supply. The government started paying subsidies to the growers in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Assam to encourage them to produce more raw jute for consumption by the jute mills, but how long can the government continue to subsidize the jute industry? Obviously, government subsidies cannot continue for an indefinite period of time.

Thailand also produces manufactured jute, so if Bangladesh continues to manufacture raw jute it will have to compete with Thailand. The quality of the jute from Thailand is better than that from Bangladesh. Thailand is an ordinary developed country, not an undeveloped country, although its economy is based on agriculture. So if Thailand loses its jute market it can find alternatives by manufacturing other products. But if Bangladesh loses its market, it has no alternatives because its economy is undeveloped.

Previously, the British used to process Indian jute in Dundee in Scotland. At that time there were no jute mills in India. After the British left India, the Dundee jute industry had great trouble in getting raw jute, because India built its own jute mills. With much difficulty, the British transformed their jute mills to manufacture other commodities. Similarly, the Manchester cotton mills used to produce cotton cloth from Indian raw cotton, and they also had great difficulty in getting supplies of raw cotton to sustain their industry after Indian independence.

Take another example. India used to export indigo and get foreign exchange. When synthetic indigo was invented in West Germany, indigo exports stopped because the international market disappeared. Today indigo plants grow by the roadside in India and nobody bothers to collect them.

The lessons of history suggest that no country should invest huge amounts of money in industries which rely on supplies of raw materials from other countries. At present Japan is an exception to this rule. However, if the people in those countries which supply raw materials to Japan become politically conscious and start developing industries based on their own raw materials, Japan will face great difficulty. For example, the Paredeep Port in Orissa exports huge amounts of manganese and iron ore to Japan. If the poor people of this region become politically conscious, they will demand the establishment of their own industries and exports to Japan will cease.

Japan purchases scrap iron from other countries to supply its steel plants, but whenever possible the Japanese save steel and use alternatives. In their train bogies, for instance, there is virtually no steel, yet their trains are among the fastest in the world. In Rangoon there is a very large scrap yard which exports to Japan. Paredeep also exports coal to Japan. The most astonishing thing is that Japan imports these raw materials and is still able to manufacture relatively cheap steel. This is because Japan is an economically developed and technologically advanced country.

Orissa is one of the most backward states in India, yet the foolish leaders of the country export Orissa’s iron ore and coal. Instead they should develop many types of large-scale and small-scale industries in Hirakund in Orissa. The situation has not gone past the point of no return, and there is still time for India to develop industries based on its own raw materials.

Suppose Bangladesh stops the manufacture of jute and increases the production of rice, what will happen? It will become self-sufficient in food but it will not have any raw materials for commercial transactions with other countries. Without commercial transactions, a country cannot prosper. If commercial transactions are stopped, how will Bangladesh purchase essential items like dried chillies, pulses and oilseeds which it presently imports from India? This is a critical problem confronting Bangladesh today.

The time of jute cultivation is from the end of winter to the end of the rainy season. If jute is replaced, we have to consider whether anything else can be grown in this season. At this time, only sesame oil-seeds can be grown. Linseed cannot be grown because it is not a rainy season crop – it is a winter crop. If ways can be found through scientific methods to grow linseed in large quantities during the summer and rainy seasons, this will greatly help Bangladesh, because linseed oil has a huge international market as a lubricant, and it can be thickened to make thick oil. But this is not an immediate solution – it is only a long-term solution. As it is presently difficult to find an alternative to jute, it is not wise to discontinue jute production immediately.

So what is the way out for Bangladesh? Some people advocate that jute should be mixed with synthetic fibres and wool to develop demi-jute industries, or that ordinary nylon, not sophisticated nylon, should be extracted from the stem of jute plants. While such industries should be developed, if nothing more than this is done then the most that can be said of this approach is that it is only a partial solution.

Just after the independence of India, jute was a state item; that is, the West Bengal government had the responsibility of developing the jute industry. The Chief Minister, Bidhan Chandra Roy, urged the central government to make jute a central item, because he could foresee that the jute industry would face economic problems in the future.

The communists vehemently opposed this plan; nevertheless jute was made a central item. Today even the central government is not able to subsidize the jute industry sufficiently to make it healthy. If jute had remained a state item, how much more trouble would the jute industry be in today?

To solve the socio-economic problems confronting Bangladesh, there must be proper planning and the implementation of suitable developmental programmes, but these plans and programmes should be based on the availability of local raw materials. For proper planning one must have a thorough knowledge of the locality. One should not sit at some distant place and make plans without proper knowledge.

What sort of developmental programmes should be taken up by Bangladesh? Some people advocate the widespread establishment of the coconut industry in Dhaka district. Although the soil of Dhaka is very fertile, the salinity is very low. Saline soil is essential for good coconut harvests, so Dhaka is not an ideal place to grow coconuts. Rather, palmyra can be grown there very well. Coconut based industries should be established in the Noakhali district of Bangladesh. Plastic can be manufactured from the husks of coconuts.

Maymansingh district is not very suitable for coconuts and the coconuts that grow there are large. Coconuts grow best in Jessore district. Those districts in India which touch Jessore district – that is, Nadia and 24 Parganas – can also establish profitable coconut based industries, and in all these places the plastic industry can be developed.

What are the natural resources of Bangladesh? There are hardly any minerals in Bangladesh, thus there is little scope for developing ferrous industries. The whole economy has to be planned around non-mineral resources. However, some non-ferrous industries can be developed, as Bangladesh has supplies of oil and natural gas.

Before starting any industry, first the planners have to ensure that there is an adequate supply of power. In Bangladesh hydroelectricity is not possible because the rivers are in the deltaic stage. Hydroelectricity can only be generated when rivers are in the hilly stage and flow with much force.

Two types of power can be developed in Bangladesh – power from oceanic tides, and solar energy. Oceanic tides can be harnessed in the Bakargang subdivision of Noakhali district where the Meghana River enters the ocean, and in the Chandpur subdivision of British Tripura district where the Dakatiya River enters the ocean. Many waves and turbulences are created by the impact of these rivers when they enter the Bay of Bengal. Tidal power would be very cheap to harness there. Solar power can also be harnessed, but this source of power is not so developed yet. It will become increasingly important in the future.

There is not much opportunity for developing thermal power based on coal in Bangladesh. In the Maymansingh and Chittagong districts, coal which has not been fully metamorphosed can be found. However, this coal will take another 800,000 to 1,000,000 years to be transformed into good quality coal. At that time human beings will not live on this earth. To develop thermal power by importing coal would not prove to be a very wise plan!

However, bio-gas can be produced in large quantities. If bio-gas is developed it will also help alleviate the scarcity of manure which is chronic in Bangladesh. Manure derived from bio-gas plants is a natural manure which increases the fertility of the soil. It is especially good for growing vegetables, some pulses, and jackfruit.

Horticulture must also be developed. The soil in Bangladesh is not good for growing mustard seeds, cow pea or mangoes. Large mangoes can be grown, but due to the high rainfall, they will be easily infected by insects; but rice, lentil, bananas, supari and jackfruit can grow well. Bangladesh is a country with a damp climate, so crops which grow in the Mediterranean and tropical regions will grow best. The crops of the temperate zone, such as grapes and wheat for making pasta, are not suitable.

Previously Bangladesh was self-sufficient in fish, but now it is deficient. This is because there is no rotten vegetation in the ponds, streams and rivulets to provide food for the fish. Deforestation has caused this problem. In the past there were 2,400 square kilometres of forest in Bangladesh, but now it is doubtful if there are even 1,000 square kilometres. Today people are even cutting down all the vines and trees along the river banks to manufacture paper. This is causing the river banks to cave in, and consequently the rivers are losing their depth. If Bangladesh were self-sufficient in fish production, it could also extract calcium from fish bones. Bangladesh should immediately start large-scale afforestation and set aside some areas as reserve forests.

Large-scale pineapple production can also be undertaken throughout Bangladesh. Pineapples need sixty inches of rain per year. The average rainfall in Bangladesh is eighty inches per year, except in one district, where it is sixty-five inches. Medicine and thread can be produced from the leaves of the pineapple, and the thread can be used to manufacture very fine quality clothing for men and women. Thread can also be manufactured from the skin of pineapples. Lychee can be produced in Jessore district. Mulberry silk will grow well only in Rajsahi district, but endy silk can be produced in all districts. Cotton cannot grow well in Bangladesh.

Some of the land which is currently used for cultivating jute can be used for mulberry silk, and the wood of the mulberry tree can be used to manufacture wood products such as sports goods for export. Rayon can also be obtained from mulberry wood. If mulberry wood is hardened it becomes as hard as iron. Sal wood can be grown in very large amounts, and segun is also suitable. However, it is not wise to plant segun as it takes eighty years to reach maturity, while sal takes only twenty-five to thirty years. Kul trees, which provide tasar silk and shellac, can also be grown, but it is not wise to develop the shellac industry because plastics have taken the place of shellac, so it has no market.

Bananas can also be grown on a large scale. Bananas with seeds grow naturally on the banks of ponds throughout Bangladesh, but high yielding, good quality and well selected bananas should be cultivated instead to produce banana chips and dehydrated bananas. By burning banana trees, sodium carbonate or washing soda can be obtained. By hydrogenation, sodium bicarbonate or edible soda can also be manufactured. This industry has great potential, and Bangladesh can even supply sodium bicarbonate to the whole world.

Today all of Bangladesh is moving in a completely unplanned way, and as a result the people are becoming very agitated. To divert their attention, the government is taking advantage of their ignorance and seizing on non-issues such as declaring the country an Islamic state.

Proper planning is essential for Bangladesh. Until the people are educated, proper planning is not possible and mismanagement will continue. I am not saying you should make the people politically educated – it may or may not be possible for you to do this – but at least you should make them politically conscious.

The Bengali Calendar

Published in:
Proutist Economics [a compilation]

The Bengali calendar is a solar calendar which takes into account the seasons. The months of the Bengali calendar and their approximate equivalents in the Gregorian calendar are as follows:

Detailed research needs to be done to make all calendars more accurate. This will make farming more scientific and increase productivity.

	Publisher's Note
1	Chapter 5
2	Some Specialities of Prout's Economic System
3	Socio-Economic Groupifications
4	Keep Money Rolling – Excerpt A
	Keep Money Rolling – Excerpt B
5	Principles of Balanced Economy – Excerpt A
	Principles of Balanced Economy – Excerpt B
6	Quadri-Dimensional Economy
7	Pramá – 1 / Dynamic Equilibrium and Equipoise
8	Minimum Requirements and Maximum Amenities
9	Capitalism in Three Spheres
10	Defects of Communism – Excerpt A
	Defects of Communism – Excerpt B
	Defects of Communism – Excerpt C
11	Economic Dynamics
12	Economic Depressions
13	Agrarian Revolution
14	Farmers Cooperatives
15	Cooperatives
16	Integrated Farming
17	Cooperative Production – Excerpt A
	Cooperative Production – Excerpt B
18	Feudalism and the Zamindary System
19	Water Conservation
20	Developmental Planning
21	Block-Level Planning
22	Decentralized Economy – 1
23	Decentralized Economy – 2
24	Economic Democracy
25	Elevating Backward Classes
26	East Wet Theory
27	Population Growth and Control
28	Developmental Programmes
29	Multi-Purpose Development Schemes
30	Questions and Answers on Economics – Excerpt A
	Questions and Answers on Economics – Excerpt B
	Questions and Answers on Economics – Excerpt C
31	Economic Exploitation of Bengal
32	Trade and Barter in Ancient Bengal – Excerpt A
	Trade and Barter in Ancient Bengal – Excerpt B
33	Economic Self-Sufficiency for Bengal
34	Some Developmental Programmes for Bengal
35	Contai Basin Planning
36	South Bengal
37	Tripura
38	Bihar
39	Bangladesh
40	The Bengali Calendar