Ku (verbal root)

Ku and kú are of quite antithetical in nature. In most words we get the use of ku only. The use of the verbal root kú is very limited. In Bengali most of the words with the prefix ku are with the short vowel; the use of long ú is very rare. In semantic terms the word ku has a very wide range of meanings; in contrast, the arena of meaning of the verbal root kú is very limited.

1. One meaning of ku is grimacing, which the monkeys and vixens do, for example.

2. The verbal root ku is also used to mean mimicking the calls of different animals.

3. The verbal root ku can also be used to express a feeling without saying a word. For example, suppose someone brings a glass of sherbet in winter. Instead of telling him “No, don’t give me the sherbet”, you simply say, uṋ-uṋ-uṋ-uṋ. This nonverbal sound will clearly indicate that you do not want the sherbet. Thus, the verbal root ku can be used for the articulation of such sounds.

4. The verbal root ku can also be used for the sound – uṋ … uṋ – which we call groaning, that is, gouṋgáni in Bengali, that a sick man or an afflicted person makes in pain.

5. The verbal root ku can also be used to mean the humming of a bee or the buzzing of a bumble bee. The fact of the matter is that neither does a bee hum nor does a bumble bee buzz. These are actually the sounds of flying. The verbal root ku has some functional uses. But more in use is the form kavate [[(the verbal root ku + lat́ [present tense] te.)]]

6. The verbal root ku is also used, more or less, in the sense of moving or making something move in the quinquelemental [physical] or mental level through a systaltic path, and also in the sense of diminution or belittling.

Ku (word)

We get the word ku by adding the suffix kvip to the verbal root ku. In most cases the word is used in feminine gender. The etymological meaning of the word ku is “mundane manifestation”. As the expression of the mind is called thought, similarly any mundane expression is called ku. In common usage ku means many things.

1. Ku is the result of the descent of the psychic entity, as it is metamorphosed into the solid factor through different stages of crudification. In other words, ku refers to each entity of the stellar world. All the luminaries – nebulae, stars, planets, satellites, meteors and comets – all belong to the category of ku. This earth, so close to us, is also ku. The word ku is an integral part of the various names of the earth.

   Bhú-bhúmi-dhará-dharitrii-sarvaḿsahá-vasumatii,
   Gotra-ku-prthivii-prthvii-kśamávanii-medinii-mahii.

   [Thirteen different names of the earth including ku.]

   The earth has many names. All the names are not equally prevalent. However, the name ku has been particularly prevalent since ancient times. In Bengali literature we have the following couplet:

   Ku-kathay paiṋcamukh kańt́he bhará biś,
   Kebal ámár sauṋge dvandva aharńish.

   While disclosing her identity, Annapurna [one name of Parvatii] describes her husband in equivocal terms: “My husband uses undesirable language with five mouths. When he speaks, one feels as if he is disgorging venom. He quarrels with me day and night.” Inherent meaning is: “For the welfare of the world, for the benefit of the denizens of the earth, my husband has been constantly advising all beings. He is so busy with different manifestations; he has to use his mouth for so many varied utterances that he has to have as many as five mouths (iishána, dakśineshvara, kálágni, vámadeva and kalyańasundara)”.

   Parama Puruśa discharges various celestial and terrestrial duties with the help of Paramá Prakrti. So He [Lord Shiva] is to remain inextricably interlinked with Paramá Prkrti … must have her company. In this state, Parama Puruśa or Parama Shiva is known as Ardhanáriishvara.⁽¹⁾ “He remains with me (with Annapurna) in every form as a copulative compound.” Hara and Gauri in the copulative compound form becomes HaraGauri, that is, Parama Puruśa andParamá Prakrti are united in an inalienable concomitance at the sweet will of Parama Puruśa.The above quoted lines are from Raygunakar Bharatchandra.

   Ku means inanimate expression, the earth or … physical expression. We get the word kula from ku; that is, we get the word kula when we add the suffix d́a to the verbal root la in connection with ku. Etymologically kula means that which holds the mundane expression.

2. In common usage, it means different modes of physical action. The physical expression of a creature expands through its progeny. So kula means “genealogy”. In this case, the la is at the initial position of the verbal root la.

   So la (here in the sense of the holder) will continue to occupy the position of the intial la. For the same reason, the word kula must be spelt with the initial la and not with end-la. That is, it will be kula and not kula [Kulra with end-la].

   The same initial la will also be used in the spelling of our familiar fruit, kula (baŕai – the jujube). The end-la can only be used in those Bengali words that retain the form of Sanskrit words or Sanskrit derived words but not in the case of indigenous words or foreign words. The word kula that we use for a special kind of fruit [jujube] is an indigenous Bengali word. So in its spelling, the initial la is used. But the word baŕai is not indigenous. It is derived from Sanskrit, badarii (badarii>baarii>baiira). Baiira/ bera/ boŕai /bor /bogŕii – all derived from one single source – badarii. So you understand that the spelling of the word kula is the same, whether it means genealogy or jujube. And you also realize that the word kula, which means genealogy, is derived from the word ku.

   Kula or jujube [Zizyphus mauritiana] grows equally well both in the equatorial zone and the tropics. In fact, it grows everywhere except in extremely cold places. So much so that the jujube tree grows even in the snow-covered regions of the Himalayas and bears fruit after the disappearance of snow. There are different kinds of jujube in different countries. The largest jujubes are available in places where the climate is warm, rainfall is little, and the soil is mixed with sand. That is why in India the large-sized jujubes of high quality are available in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and in the vicinity of Agra in Uttar Pradesh. The jujubes of Allahabad and Kashii are not bad. In Bengal there is good rainfall. So in Bengal, although there is a good jujube crop, its size or quality is not of high standard.

   The same condition is also applicable in the case of prickly trees. The place that is congenial for the good growth of jujubes is also congenial for the good growth of date palms. And like the jujube, in Bengal there is substantial date palm production but not of high quality. Even if high quality seeds of date palm are sown in Bengal, the tree growth will be good, the juice will also be very sweet, but the quality will not be good. The date palms grown in Bengal are all seed and skin, and practically without any kernel. So you understand that, like the jujube tree, the date palm tree is also a prickly plant. That is why there is similarity in the nature and behaviour of the jujube⁽²⁾ and the date palm.

   Generally trees with thorns send their roots deep into the subterranean soil, and from deep down they draw their sustenance. That is why most plants that grow in the desert are thorny. The screw pine trees (Pandanus) are also thorny. So their growth in the desert area is not that bad. Even in countries with heavy rainfall, they prefer sandy riparian soil. Even in the desert region of Gujarat I have observed the luscious growth of cacti. There are different varieties of jujube – some are very sweet and some very sour.

   The spring season is the natural time for the ripening of the jujube. As in Southeast Asia, no other fruit is easily available at that time, the jujubes enjoy a seasonal demand during this period. Probably that demand is also likely to continue. Jujube helps in digestion (dried jujube is more effective than a fresh one). Pickle made from jujube causes the secretion of saliva and therefore acts as an appetizer. Jujubes in small quantity are good for the pancreas.

   Jujube leaves are medicine for severe kinds of pox and measles (when a patient suffers from smallpox, the suppressed pox under the skin causes severe pain on the body, and the patient dies in excruciating agony). The wood of the jujube tree is very good for sports equipment. Jujube wood is also used in making fire works. In different countries jujube grows in different seasons (some in summer and others in autumn). Moreover, there are twenty seven different subspecies of jujube with radically different characteristics and shapes. In eastern India we are generally familiar with three main varieties of jujube: 1) large, longish and tasty jujube of Kashii or the coconut-jujubes; 2) round; very sour when green and sweet-sour when ripe … t́opákul; and 3) wild jujube or shiyákul [Zigyplus oenoplia, the berry grown on a wild thorny plant] carelessly grown in the wilderness. As a jackal is very fond of jambu [rose apple], so the word jambu or jambuka refers to both a jackal and a jambu. Similarly, since jujube is a favourite fruit of jackals, it is also called by another name of jackal, that is, bádara (not báṋdara or bandara). A type of non-mulberry insect is reared in the jujube tree. That is why such a plant has specific commercial value. I have personally seen lac insects reared in the jujube trees in Manbhum or Murshidabad district of Bengal. I have seen this in Thailand also.

   The kula in the compound word kulakuńd́alinii (coiled serpentine) comes from the word ku. According to Kálacakrayánatantra, the last bone at the bottom of the spine carries the weight of the entire upper portion of the spine. This bottom piece of bone is therefore called kula, that is, the la that holds ku or the solid factor. According to Tantra, the sleeping divinity is lying in this kula in the shape of a coiled serpentine. This seed that holds the solid factor is called la; in other words, la is the acoustic root of the solid factor. This coiled serpentine moves upward through mantrabodha, mantrágháta, mantracaetanya [ideation of mantra, mántrika striking or stirring of the kuńd́alinii, mántrika consciousness], with the help of the acoustic sound huḿ, and unite with Parama Shiva seated on the thousand petalled lotus in Sahasrára cakra. This is the highest form of meditation. This elevation of the coiled serpentine is called kulasádhaná. One who performs this spiritual practice becomes famous as kulasádhaka or kaola (kula + ań). This process or path of Tantra sadhana is known as kulácára. Lord Shiva, the founder of this Tantra, is therefore called mahákaola or ádi kaola [the pioneer kaola]. And the guru who teaches this sadhana is known as kulaguru.

   Nowadays many people understand the term kulaguru to mean “family preceptor”. No, kuluguru is one who is well experienced in kulasádhaná – who is siddha, that is, an expert in this discipline, and who is competent to teach the process of this kulasádhaná. Svastyayan or benedictory ceremony is a part of shántikarma of Vidyá Tantra. The part of this benedictory ceremony that is known as purascarańa is also the process of raising the coiled serpentine. According to Tantra, purascarańa is a necessary part of this [process]. There is no difference in the rituals of Shaeva, Shákta, Vaeśńava, Saora, and Gáńapatya Tantras. What is kulakuńd́alinii in Shaeva Tantra, whose goal is Parama Shiva, is called Mahákálii in Shákta Tantra, and its final aim is termed as Mahákála or Mahákaola or Nairátmashakti. And in Vaeśńava philosophy, the two are termed as Rádhá and Puruśottama Krśńa. However, in whatever way the raising of coiled serpentine or purascarańa is done, kulashakti will always remain at the bottom in the solid factor (holder of kula whose acoustic root is laḿ and which is the base of physical existence). This is the base or ádhárshilá–that is why it is also called muládhára. Its goal is also that Supreme Consciousness.

   This raising of the kulakuńd́alinii is the struggle of consciousness against crudity. Piercing through the dense darkness of crudity, consciousness rushes on towards its Supreme fulfilment. It is a struggle … a severe struggle. The acoustic root of struggle is huḿ (we say rańahuḿkár, i.e., war cry). The seed of kulakuńd́alinii is also huḿ, because it is in the raising of kulakuńd́alinii by its tail that the sumum bonum of human life lies hidden.

3. Another meaning of ku in common usage is to create obstacles to good work. The nature of a good person is:

   Maetreyii-karuńá-muditopekśáńaḿ sukha-dukha
   Puńyápuńyaviśayáńáḿ bhávanátshittaprasádanam.

   [Feelings of amity and compassion occasioned by contemplation of joys and sorrows, virtues and vices, induce a pleasant state of mind.]

   Let alone an honest person, it is the duty even of an intelligent person to arouse the feeling of amity to a person who seems to be happy. One has the feeling – “Ah, that person is quite happy … how nice … let him or her always remain happy … Happiness is so scarce in this world!” Again on seeing a person in distress one should have the feeling – “Alas, how miserable is the condition of this person! Let his or her miseries be over expeditiously … I shall also try to remove his or her misery as early as possible.”

   “Alas, what suffering an animal has to bear at the hands of cruel humans! But the animal is absolutely innocent. It is not a born enemy of the human being that if a person does not kill it, it will kill the person, just as a tiger or an insect does. I shall continuously make efforts to see that human beings refrain from such cruel acts of violence.” If one sees someone doing noble work, as a result of which the progress of the world is accelerated and the path of human welfare is widened, then one should think: “The noble work of this person will remain written in letters of gold in human history. I shall give my full support to this person in their noble endeavours ... I shall help them in every possible way.”

   If one sees a person engaged in deleterious activity, then one should think: “On account of the pernicious activities of this person, people are going to the dogs, this person is striking at the root of long-cherished austerities, forbearance, benevolence, and so on. I shall never support such misdeeds.”

   There are people, however, who have opposite feelings. They burn in envy to see someone happy, and make an all out effort to put them in danger. On seeing someone in distress, they think: “Rightly served. As you sow, so you reap. Let their troubles augment.” Such human-shaped animals are prowling about in many fields of life, including the field of politics.

   There are some people who, on seeing someone engaged in noble work, try to stop that person; for example, when someone belonging to the opposite camp is trying to help the neglected, downtrodden, people badly hit by famine or flood, they think that [through their philanthropic acts] their adversaries may become popular, and so they must be opposed. There are people who, on seeing someone engaged in harmful activity or malevolent endeavours, encourage them in crude, bestial activities so that they can directly exploit the opportunity for their own benefit.

4. The act of reducing something large to a small size, or to bring a big issue into a smaller perspective is called hrasviikarańa (hras + bun + lyut́ and ii). For example, mánava>mánavaka; dolá>dolaka (pendulum); d́hola>d́holaka [tom-tom]; nala>nolaka [nose-ring]; mádala>máduli; river>rivulet; man>mankin; arm>armlet; similarly words like bracelet, hamlet, hutment, etc. are formed. From dviipa we have dviiparaka (dviiparaka>diiaraa>diiárá>diirá> diiyara); from batsa, batsaruka (batsaruka> baccharua>bacharu>bácharu>báchura ); from mátr, mátrká (mátrká>máttiá>máiá>meye ). This diminution of an object is also called ku.

5. Many of you must know that the transgression of the code of Dharma is called pápa (sin) and transgression of the social code is called aparádha (guilt or crime). The word pápa is used both in the general sense and the specific sense. In the general sense, pápa means pátaka. Pátaka means offence against Dharma. This pátaka has two branches – one branch is known as pápa. To do what one should not do is pápa, and not to do what one should do is called pratyaváya. Both pápa and pratyaváya are undesirable. But the sages and ascetics of ancient times used to say that pratyaváya is more detestable than pápa. There are three different degrees of pátaka – 1) pátaka, 2) atipátaka, and 3) mahápátaka.

   That [pápa] which can be nullified with slight effort, sacrifice or expiation is called pátaka in common usage. Suppose someone has stolen two hundred rupees from another person. If they return that money to the owner with interest and pay something over and above it, and at the same time ask for forgiveness, then that common pátaka is expiated. To wound someone’s feelings is also this kind of pátaka. If someone hurts a person and then begs his forgiveness … repeatedly requests forgiveness, and if that person sincerely forgives him, then it may be presumed that the pátaka has been expiated.

   Atipátaka means that kind of sin, the expiation of which calls for severe austerities and physical suffering. If, for example, your mistake causes someone a great loss or ruins his future then that will also be a great sin. Normally there is no expiation for such a sin. But, if you devote yourself completely in your life-long efforts to help them by making amends, and the person forgives you from the core of their heart, then one may consider that expiation has been effected. But it does not really happen, because, can a person to whom you have caused permanent damage really forgive you from the core of their heart? In history we come across many such acts of great sin. The manner in which Ajatashatru killed his father, Bimbisara, was an act of great sin. Shashanka killed Rajyavardhana, who was his invited guest. That was also an act of great sin. The way in which Harsavardhana killed Jayashankarii, wife of Shashanka, and their minor son was also an act of great sin.

   The worst kind of sin is called mahápátaka. The fundamental difference between atipátaka and mahápátaka is that the sight of an act of great sin like atipátaka does not tempt others to commit such sins. It is also possible that the people will not remember the event. However, the worst sins are those that leave a permanent scar on society and human history with recurring consequences ... Had Ravana simply abducted Sita, that would have been a great sin. But, masquerading as an ascetic, Ravana first gained the confidence of Sita and then treacherously abducted her. Ravana came in the guise of an ascetic and then became a thief. This has a recurring consequence. Even today, on seeing an ascetic, a housewife may be afraid that, who knows, like Ravana, that man may be actually thief in the guise of an ascetic!

   The other branch of pátaka is pratyaváya, which means not to do what should be done: for example, properly educating the child; taking measures so that they can be independent and self-sufficient. One should give a daughter in marriage when she comes of age (but if an educated or self-sufficient daughter does not agree to marry, that is a different matter). One should gratefully remember the good one has received from any benefactor. One should follow the path of Dharma. If one refuses to abide by these “shoulds” – if one indulges in the opposite of these in action, thought or words – then one has committed pratyaváya. It does not matter whether it is pápa or pratyváya, the fact is that whenever something assumes a condemnable dimension, one uses the word ku for it.

6. Any violation of the accepted code of conduct is generally called a crime. A community or a state stands on certain codes. When these codes are related to the administration of the state, then it is called a constitution. When it is related to governance or justice, then it is called law. An unconstitutional or anti-constitutional act is regarded as a crime in every state. That is why an act of violation of the constitution or law is called a crime. But apart from certain cardinal human principles, there are always different views regarding various matters in different communities. This is the reason why in different communities or states there are differences in the structure of the constitution, the legislative, administrative and judicial systems. So, one has to conform to the constitutional, social, legal and administrative systems of the country in which one lives at a particular point in time; otherwise one is liable for punitive action.

   If we continue to expand the few fundamental human principles that we have, and accordingly revise the constitutional, administrative and legal systems of different countries, then it will lead to better prospects for human unity. Then humanism and Neo-humanism will receive an impetus to accelerate the speed of their progress, which is a major requirement of its journey [towards unity]. If we gradually increase the fundamental unity of human beings and simultaneously reduce the apparent points of difference, the universal humanity will certainly become one and indivisible some day. This is not a visionary dream – it will be the first indication of human wisdom in reality. In any case, the word ku can be used for whatever is considered a crime or culpability in any particular place.

7. There are activities that provoke, as a reaction, a filthy sensation in the body or mind of a person. This induces in them a desire to stay away from such activities, and creates in them a mentality of over-reaction against such activities. This reactionary mentality is called ghrńá or hatred. Hatred is an imposed psychic bondage. So it is a kind of pásha [eight types of external fetters]. What originates in the mind and expands to the external world is called ripu [six inherent bondages]. That which originates outside and influences the mind is called pásha, as told earlier. An intelligent person keeps his or her ripu in control and fights the páshas.

   The sages and ascetics do not recommend any mechanism for opposing the ripus, because if a particular ripu is repressed, it tries to find an outlet through another ripu. The same is true about the remaining of ripus (lust, anger, greed, attachment, pride and jealousy). If the propensity of greed is strong in a person and they are compelled to control it under the pressure of poverty – for example, if a person who used to take bribes is compelled to refrain from taking bribes due to pressure from law enforcement authorities–their greed will find expression through anger or some other ripu; that is, they will burst into a rage.

   So the recommended psychological stance is that a ripu must be kept under control, and under no circumstances should it be allowed to run counter to the society or to societal norms. Suppose someone has a strong weakness for eating. Overeating or eating prohibited food can naturally lead to sickness or premature death. So that person restrains their greed in such a manner that their greed is satisfied and at the same time potential disease is prevented. Suppose someone addicted to drink has become a slave of liquor under its strong influence. If they can sublimate their alcohol addiction into a passion for music or painting or any other finer art, then their passion will be satisfied without any injury to themselves.

   Regarding the pashas, the wise people of ancient times expressed their strong conviction that the páshas [imposed bondages of the mind – fear shame, doubt etc.] must be opposed. To fight fear, for example, one must move quickly towards the very source of that fear, equipped with necessary physical and psychological weapons. If you remain confined in your cloister, fearfully barring the door, the fear will make its way into your mind and there take root. Then the bondage of fear can never be thrown off. So always remember that ripus [inborn enemies – lust, angers, greed attachment, vanity and jealousy] must be controlled and páshas [bondages] must be opposed. The endeavour to be liberated from the páshas is a step forward in human expansiveness – an ascent towards human glory and excellence. Páshobaddho bhavejjibo páshamukto bhavecchivah [Bound by pásha is the jiiva, liberated from bondage is Shiva].

   Your psychological reaction to a person’s behaviour or action that creates pásha or provokes ripu is called hatred. Since hatred is also a type of pásha, and it must be opposed through reasoning and intellect. The word ku can be used for this hatred.

8. Petty thoughts give birth to mean behaviour. And mean action is the result of mean behaviour. So a person who does not want to be the perpetrator of any mean deed must maintain restraint in their behaviour and integrity in their thought. That is why the savants and sages of every age and every country have laid enormous emphasis on good behaviour and good thoughts. Good behaviour and good thoughts are regarded as the fundamental human principles. If an honest person always keeps the company of a dishonest person then the honest person’s thoughts are bound to degenerate under the influence of bad company. As a result of this degeneration of thought, they can or do wrong things. That is why wise people give so much importance to satsauṋga, that is, good company. In Tantra, special importance has been given to satsauṋga:

   Satsauṋgena bhavenmuktirasatsauṋgeśu bandhanam;
   Asatsauṋgamudranaḿ yá sá mudrá parikiirtitá.

   [Good company brings liberation, while bad company causes bondage … to discard bad company is termed as mudrá.]

   The word ku can be used for the following mental actions: To belittle oneself with petty thoughts, to confine oneself to narrow ideas, to put a blot on human history, etc.

9. Suppose someone has been carrying on a noble enterprise. If a wall of obstruction is raised to arrest its progress, then that insurmountable wall of obstruction is also called ku.

10. Suppose someone is urged on by a noble idea. In that case, if innumerable hindrances are created on some pretext or the other, or the person is discouraged, or vigorous efforts are made to turn that person into a materialist with a misleading philosophy, or the benevolent spirit is suppressed, then all such deceitful deeds are called ku.

Kuka

The word kuka is formed by adding the suffix ka, or according to some, ac to the verbal root kuk. We get the word koka by adding the suffix ghaiṋa to the verbal root kuk. The meaning of the verbal root kuk is to take something after picking it up. So the etymological meaning of the word kuka is one who accepts something after picking it up or takes something which has already been picked up. In common usage kuka means the following:

A cook. The cook picks up the vegetables from below [from the floor], cooks them in various utensils, and after the dish is ready, takes it down from the stove and keeps it nearby. That is why kuka means “a cook”. In this case, the proximity of the relationship between the word kuka and the English word ́cook’ should be especially noted.

Since in ancient times the husband used to take the bride from her father’s hands after she was formally given to the bridegroom, one meaning of the word kuka in common usage is “the husband”. The second meaning of the word kuka is the conjugal relationship between husband and wife – (jáyá-pati>jampati>dampati ).

Kukabha

The word kukabha is formed by adding the suffix bha and then the suffix d́a to the word kuka . Etymologically, kukabha means something, on seeing which a person picks it up from the ground with great delight. In common usage kukabha means a type of wine which the vámácárii tantikas used while practicing some of their rites. In the ordinary sense, kukabha means the wine that makes one besotted with intoxication after drinking just a small quantity.

Kukara

Ku + kara = kukara. Kara means hand. Kukara means dirty hand. In common usage, kukara means a person who is always engaged in nefarious activities – one who uses his or her hands for doing dirty jobs and does not hesitate even to commit murder (a murderer, a goon). In common usage, kukara also means a blunt weapon. Kukara also means a mad elephant.

Kukuda

Kuk + un + dá + d́a = kukuda. Kukuda means one who first picks up an object and then gives it away. In common usage kukuda means the person who ceremonially gives away the daughter according to the scriptural custom. In ancient times there were various marriage customs.

Of those customs – shaeva, gándharbha, rákśasii, etc. – one custom was as follows: The bride wearing ornaments would remain seated in a squatting fashion on a low wooden seat; the guardian of the bride would pick her up along with the wooden seat and give her away to the bridegroom, who would receive her as a gift. The person presenting the gift was called kukuda, that is, one who gives away [the bride after picking her up]. The one who received the gift was called koka, that is, the one who accepts the offered bride as a gift. This marriage custom where the daughter is ceremonially given away is still prevalent among high-caste people. This custom is humiliating for women. Is a woman a commodity like rice, pulse, salt or oil that I pick her up and hand her over to someone? Is a woman a hen or okra that I pack her up in a sack and sell her or give her away? The custom is not only humiliating for women; it also drags the dignity of humanity down to dust. It violates the basic principles of humanism and also Neo-Humanism. I request all rational-minded people of the world to give serious thought to this issue and try their best to abolish this odious custom. I would say that it was not proper for Manu to support this custom.

Kukubhá

Kuka + bhá + d́a + t́á = kukubhá. Etymologically kukubhá means “that which seems to be adapted”. In common usage it means a rágińii [mode of Indian classical music] that has been roughly adapted. Suppose you hear a song. You at once realize in which particular mode of tune it has been rendered. But you have not yet been able to familiarize yourself with the distinctive details of the song’s technical aspects – its rise and fall, the style of the kheyál [elaborate classical song], its elaboration, intermediary and final development. In this situation you cannot properly render the song on the basis of your rough idea. This rough idea of the musical mode of a particular rágińii is called kukubhá. After hearing a song once or twice you can say, “I have understood the kukubhá of the song; but I have not yet been able to fully familiarize myself with it.”

Kukura

Kuk + urac = kukura. Etymologically kukura means “one who by nature picks up anything in its path”.

1. In common use it means a sárameya [dog]. According to Puranic legend the Head of the Security Department of Yamarája [god of death] in hell is a bitch. The name of this particular bitch is Saramá. We get the word sárameya by adding the suffix sneya to the word saramá in the affectionate sense. The word sárameya stands for any dog, the entire dog community, in fact. That is why I have told you umpteen times before that no one should name their daughter Saramá. Someone may say, “The name of the wife of Bibhiisana, brother of Ravana in the Rámáyana, was Saramá. So what is the problem of naming one’s daughter Saramá?” In answer to that, it can only be pointed out that Saramá of Rámáyańa was a demon, not a woman.

2. The second meaning of kukura in common usage refers to that branch of the Yadu dynasty which, due to intellectual impairment, was led astray onto the path of adharma [non-Dharma] and later was destroyed at the sacred place of Prabhása (Muśalparva of the Mahábhárata). The branch of the Yadu dynasty that comprised the descendants of the children born from the marriage of Aniruddha and Uśá, daughter of king Váńa, followed the path of Dharma and finally gained a good reputation in the world. In any case, according to the Purana, the branch of the Yadu dynasty that followed the path of adharma was called the kukura branch in Sanskrit. And those who followed the path of Dharma came to be known afterwards as yádavas.

3. There are some plants, the leaves or the juice of which are fragrant, namely, hiuṋgu (hiḿ, asafoetida), nágadrońii (nágadońa) [Artemisia vulgrus], parńamadhurii (pána maorii), madhurii (maorii, that is, aniseed), rocanii (pudiná, that is, spearmint), dhányaka (dhane, that is, coriander-seed), etc.

4. Another meaning of the word kukura is any perfume distilled from a fragrant object and preserved in a container, for example, iitr (it is better not to call it átar in Bengali), scent, essence, rose water, water scented with pandanus flower, etc.

5. Another meaning of the word kukura is desha [country]. In this case, however, the word is used in masculine plural, that is, kukurah ( the plural form of the word nara)

6. In a limited sense, kukura also means transported fire.

7. The word kukkura is also used in the sense of kukura. The word kukkura is formed by adding the suffix urań to the verbal root kuk. In it there is an additional ka. Some call the suffix kurańa as well. The word kukur is prevalent both in Bengali and in Bhojpuri. The word is used in its original Sanskrit form. In Punjabi it is called kukkar. This word is derived from Sanskrit. Again, according to some, the original Sanskrit word is kukkura, and kukura is the Prákrta form [spoken form] or the grhita Sanskrit form [word from another language accepted in Sanskrit].

   According to some zoologists, a dog is not an original species [sui generis]; it is a hybrid creature. As the Royal Bengal Tiger of the Sunderbans and the domestic cat are respectively the biggest and the smallest members of the cat family, similarly the African lion and the vixen (meteor-faced, kikhi), according to some, are respectively the biggest and the smallest members of the dog family.

   According to some scholars, a dog is a hybrid of the wolf and the vixen. In ancient times wild dogs were rather scarce, precisely for the same reason. There is hardly any dog fossil amongst the available fossils of ancient animals. Nowadays, however, wild dogs are also prevalent. These wild dogs live gregariously in jungles, and even a gigantic tiger has been seen to be flabbergasted and killed by a concerted attack of these dogs.

   Although a dog is a hybrid of the wolf and the vixen, it must be said that there are many radical, extreme differences between a wolf and a dog. A wolf is voracious, but a dog feels satisfied with a small meal. It is difficult to tame a wolf, but a dog loves to be domesticated. A dog is extremely faithful and loyal to its master. A wolf is neither faithful nor loyal to its master. A dog is not ferocious by nature. It attacks or frightens someone as part of its duty. A wolf is ferocious by nature. It has no sense of duty. A dog would not normally kill a creature if its stomach were full. But a wolf, even when its belly is full, kills a creature. If it has no capacity to eat it, it carries the carcass to its den and eats it according to its convenience. Dogs do not generally fight with other members of the dog family. They fight with members of the feline family. But a wolf does not observe any such principle. A wolf avoids the strong and unnecessarily attacks the weak. Although there is a family resemblance between the wolf and the dog, whenever a dog is sighted the wolf attacks and kills it.

   There are many differences between a jackal and a dog. A dog generally moves about during the daytime. But jackals are night prowlers by nature. A jackal moves in the daytime only when it is in danger, it has to change locations or is excessively hungry. A jackal lives in a hole, but a dog never likes to live in a hole. It prefers to live in the open. A jackal cannot be tamed; but a dog can. By virtue of being night prowlers, the jackals periodically howl in chorus to preserve their solidarity and register their presence. However, dogs do not have this habit. They bark collectively only when they have to fight an enemy as a body. Although both jackals and dogs belong to the canine family, a dog chases a jackal whenever it sees one. A jackal runs away at the sight of a dog. By nature a dog is brave and a jackal is cowardly.

   The Alsatian dogs are close relatives of foxes. The dogs of Bhutan, although not cowardly, closely resemble jackals in cold countries.

   Although a fox belongs to the dog family, its relation with the dog is very remote. In spite of some similarity between a dog and a jackal in appearance, there is a wide gulf of difference in their natures.

   The dog has been a companion of human beings since ancient times. History tells us that dogs have been of use and continue to be of use to people in different ways in their prosperity as well as in their adversity. In the scriptures, a dog has sometimes been shown respect by presenting it as a symbol of dharma. Of course, there is no dearth of people who are opposed to dogs. In northern India some people say: “Only one who is a dog himself maintains a dog.” In Hindi and Urdu kukura [a dog] is called kuttá.

Kuk + kvip + kut́ + ka = kukkut́a. Etymologically it means that which picks up something after repeatedly pecking at it. In common usage it means the following:

1. A wild cock.

2. A big domestic cock.

3. A child whose father is a touchable outcaste and whose mother is an untouchable outcaste.

4. Kukkut́a also means transported fire. Suppose you take a sheaf of hay, light it from the hearth and then carry that flaming sheaf to light another hearth or a lamp. The flame of fire carried by the hay is called transported fire. One meaning of kukkut́a is transported fire.

5. Suppose there are a number of thatched houses in a row. Somehow one house catches fire. Then, wafted by the wind or through a spark, that fire can spread to other adjoining houses. This fire which is transported by wind or a spark is also called kukkut́a.

6. Objects which are made through the process of burning are also called kukkut́as. Examples are: a brick, a pitcher, an urn-shaped pot, tiles, a pitcher with a narrow neck, shallow earthen plate, etc. If kukkut́a is made kukkut́ii by adding ii to it, then it can mean many other things.

7. In common usage kukkut́a refers to a sanctimonious person [Vak dhármik] feigning virtousness, keeps a vigil on who touches what, and who skips about while walking lest they by chance touch something untouchable. Such a person, who is always watchful regarding the possible lapses of anyone in observing scriptural edicts, is called kukkut́ii. For example, “Lo and behold, I have seen it with my own eyes – how disgraceful it is really – a Brahmin girl drinking from a pot full of water without bringing the vessel in contact with her mouth on ekádashii day [fasting day]. Really, what a detestable sight!”

   If somebody carps, “Well sister, you also drink water on ekádashii, don’t you?” She would at once reply, “True, I drink, but that’s a different matter. I drink because if I don’t drink water my throat feels parched. But then, must the whole world drink water on ekádashii? Alas, alas, it’s now all gone by the board! Lost, lost, all is lost!” This kind of mentality is called kukkut́ii mentality.

8. When spelt as kukkut́ii, another meaning of kukkut́a is the difference between appearance and reality, in other words hypocrisy.
    

   While talking about kukkut́ii, I am reminded of an incident. I have preserved the memory of that incident under the heading “Kamal Means Guernsey”. It happened a long time ago. Since then much water has flown down the Ganges into the Bay of Bengal. I have completely forgotten the exact date and time. But I vaguely remember that it was a Pauś [winter time] evening, and I had gone to attend a function held by an aristocratic family. It was the day when the newlywed bride was to ritualistically have lunch at her in-law’s place for the first time. The marriage was held in the month of Agraháyańa [eighth month of the Bengali calendar] but the bride’s rice-eating ceremony was held in the month of Pauś. Do you know why? At the time, when the marriage was held in the month of Agraháyańa, it was near the end of an English month. The Kolkata babus’ pockets were absolutely empty; no money in the purse, no money in the bank! So the master of the house, that is, the father of the bridegroom thought, if invited at that time, the guests would not come in shame, due to not having money to buy suitable presents or any present at all for that matter. Moreover, the guests who would come would bring cheap gifts. So, keeping the salary aspect in mind, the master of the house invited his guests in the month of Pauś. I reached the wedding house in the Pauś evening. I also had to buy a present by borrowing money from different sources. The invitation card carried the inscription: “Food will be served strictly in accordance with Government Guest Control Regulations.”

   I thought that even though people write like this, in practice they would serve rádháballabhii⁽³⁾ instead of luci⁽⁴⁾ to one’s bellyful, because a rádháballabhi does not come under the purview of the relevant regulations!

   Anyway, what could I do? I was just sitting idle and biding my time ... There was no leaf of any tree in sight so that I could count the leaves. So I was just listening with rapt attention to the colourful talk going on around me. The ladies had come to show off their saris and ornaments. Their discussions were confined mainly to saris and ornaments. The gentlemen were discussing diverse topics. We were all seated, however, the handsome young man who was shining amidst us like the full moon kept on standing. Many people asked him to sit down, but he said, “Don’t worry, I’m fine.” He kept on standing, possibly because in the standing position the glamour of his suit would be more prominent. If he sat down he would not be able to highlight the glamour of his dress. Many people were admiringly staring either at his coat or his trousers, and some had their eyes glued unashamedly to his clothes. One callow youth could not resist his indecent curiosity, and asked, “Sir, from where did you buy such a beautiful coat?”

   The handsome young man said, “So you have noticed it! Then listen. It is about twelve years now. I had just got possession of my feudal estate from the clutches of the Court of Wards⁽⁵⁾ that had been trying to grab it. At that time I was so happy that I felt as light as air.”

   “I left for New York, thinking I would enjoy myself there. I stayed in an abhijáta⁽⁶⁾ [aristocratic] locality. In that locality the price of everything was twice the normal price, sometimes two and a half times, sometimes even more. It seemed as if the locality was telling everybody, ́Come, squander your money here.’ The shopkeepers of that place were always in the pink, because the customers there won’t ever haggle. They would pay whatever they were asked. Many would not ask for the receipt and others would refuse to take it, even if given. The question of returning the change just did not arise. I also lived in this high style. Many Lords were confounded by my behaviour, which also turned the heads of many Barons. Once I went to a shop and asked for the best trousers that they had. They showed me one; it was really good. I asked, ‘What’s the price?’”

   “They said, ́Twenty thousand rupees, sir’. (Twenty thousand rupees at that time would mean eight hundred fifty thousand now.)”

   “I said, ́Such beautiful stuff and so cheap … oh my God!’ I at once took it. These are those trousers, do you understand? I am not sitting, because if I sit, the creases will be disturbed ... the ironing will be spoilt.”

   The young stripling stared confusedly. He was dumbfounded; only his lips were shaking slightly.

   The handsome young man resumed, “Then I told them to show me a good cut of coat. They showed me one. I asked, ́What’s the price?’ They said, ́Thirty thousand’. Of course they quoted the price in US dollars.”

   “I wondered, Thirty thousand!”

   “They had already become familiar with my generous temperament. At the time of my buying the trousers, they got an idea of how open-handed a spendthrift I was.”

   “They made a concession, ́Sir, for you we can make it twenty-eight thousand’.”

   “I said, ́Oh no, no, no! Why should you take the trouble for me? I am grateful to you for the gesture you have shown in agreeing to sell it for twenty eight thousand. I’ll pay you two thousand in gratitude, and I’ll make out a cheque for thirty-two thousand and buy it right now.’ I gave just as I said. This is that coat.”

   The greedy, hobbledehoy young man kept on gazing in wonder. After some time, when his eyes became dazed by the glamour of the coat, he closed them. I was also marveling while listening to their conversation and looked at his suit feeling like a veritable peasant. There is no harm in telling the truth. I was wondering who this handsome young man could be. Once I thought he was possibly the son of some nawab. Then it dawned on me that the age of nawabs has long since passed. Their sun has set forever. Then who is this person? Who is he? My mind said, “Haven’t you recognized him yet? He must be some deputy minister.” I said to my mind, “Oh mind, you are right. The day that automobiles replaced elephants and horses was the day that deputy ministers replaced nawabs and emperors. Just a revised and enlarged edition of the same thing.”

   It was now time for dinner. We all took our seats as usual. The additional minister also had no choice but to sit. Taking a great risk of spoiling the ironing of the trousers, he sat very carefully. As some people drink water from a small pitcher without any direct physical contact, similarly the deputy minister sat in a delicate manner.⁽⁷⁾ No, the master of the house strictly followed the printed inscription on the invitation card. The dinner plate was very light. Possibly that is the reason why it is called light refreshment in English (light refreshment – to restore the mood in a light manner). As I looked around, I felt that the amount of interest that could be accrued on the price of the gifts was enough to recover the cost of the light refreshment. The value of the gifts would be an additional gain. Thank God, while leaving my house I had told my cook to prepare for me boiled rice and a broth of wax gourd. I now realized I had done the right thing. I must eat on my return; otherwise the whole night I will feel the sharp pangs of hunger. What I ate settled silently in a solitary corner of my stomach. No belching, no feeling of surfeit. While returning, the additional minister came to my mind several times. However, after coming back home I had my rice and wax gourd broth and went to sleep happily.

   These warm trousers I have been using for the last twelve years. Just below the right hand pocket, it has become torn. I thought of giving it to the laundry today itself and asking the owner of the cleaning shop if they could get it darned by an expert. I have noticed for the last few days that a new dyeing-cleaning shop has opened near my house. Its name is shuciishubhra dhaotanilaya [the house of cleaning pure white]. I thought, let me go there. My clothes will be safe in the local laundry. I reached the shop. The owner was quite a gentleman – simple, and amiable in conversation. On enquiry I learnt that the name of the gentleman was Sri Elebele Albam. I shared our joys and sorrows with Mr Album for some time. Like me, he was also from a middle-class family. He was talking about the business of dyeing and cleaning. He said one could get fabulously rich in Europe if one ran this business properly, because although the wage of the washerman is high there, the ingredients for washing are cheap and of high quality. Things are not like that here. Washing is not good, and on top of it clothes are often spoilt. The gentleman was saying that here most of the laundry owners serve their customers after getting the washing done by washermen for a lump sum payment. Most dyeing-cleaning shops cannot afford to get the clothes washed with their own labour. After making payment to the washermen, very little [profit] margin is left in their hands. He was saying that in those European countries, the dyeing cleaners also make a substantial earning by lending high quality clothes. In this country the scope for this is also very limited.

   I said, “Your words are absolutely true, literally.” The gentleman said, “In this country people send clothes to the laundry under two circumstances. First, those who must have their clothes washed quickly within a specified period of time. Second, those who cannot trust unknown washermen with their clothes. They consider the laundry much safer. So they give their clothes to the laundry.”

   The gentleman was saying that everything has a good side and a bad side. In other countries there are washing machines for washing the clothes. In India there is practically no use of this. So most people in other countries wash clothes themselves instead of sending them to the laundry. This puts the laundry owners at a disadvantage. But in India one has to wash clothes by hand. So busy people don’t find sufficient time or leisure to wash their clothes. Consequently they have to depend on the laundry. Moreover for ultra modern scientific cleaning, people of India as well as other countries have to come to the laundry. But as I said, all things considered, it is not a profitable business.

   Our talk was rolling along smoothly. Then suddenly I saw the deputy minister from the previous evening arriving at the laundry all by himself. Possibly he had parked his car at a distance. In his hands were the costly coat and trousers we had seen the previous day. He handed in the coat and the trousers to Mr. Album and gave him a fresh currency note of ten rupees. I glanced for a moment at the deputy minister, but could not find any glamour in his figure. Possibly because he was not in those trousers and coat, his glamour had diminished to some extent. I could not see yesterday’s lustre in his face or flicker in his eyes. I imagine he had perhaps overeaten yesterday, and as a result of indigestion had fifty bilious belches. That might have made him a bit weak and lack-lustre. But how could he eat so much? He could eat that much only if he were served a lot. Anyway, after the deputy minister left I asked Mr. Album, “ Did you take an advance for washing his clothes?”

   He said, “By no means. I take payment towards washing charges only after I hand over the washed clothes.”

   I asked, “Then why did you take an advance from him?”

   Mr. Album said, “He owed me twelve rupees. After much haggling it was fixed at ten. So he gave me that ten rupees now.”

   I asked, “Is the gentleman very rich? Where does he live? What is his name?”

   He said, “He lives in Howra’s Bá…Bá …Bá…Bá …”

   I said, “You mean Baje Shibpur of Howrah?”

   He said, “Yes.”

   I said, “But you have not told me his name.”

   Mr. Album said, “As far as I know his name is Akalmand Singh.”

   I asked, “Is he very rich?”

   Mr. Album said, “I don’t know whether he is very rich, but he haggles too much.”

   I asked, “How so?”

   Mr. Album said, “Yesterday he was to attend an invitation. He came to me to borrow a good pair trousers and a good coat. I charge rupees six per piece, so that is, rupees twelve in all. After much hassle it was fixed at ten. Today while paying those ten rupees he asked , ́Won’t nine rupees do?’ I refused. So most reluctantly he coughed up ten rupees. But please remember it is our trade secret … please keep it to yourself and don’t tell anybody about it.”

   I asked, “Do you know what he does?”

   Mr. Album said, “I don’t know exactly, but I presume he runs a shanty shop of puffed rice and deep fried snacks, in Baje Shibpur.”

   I asked, “How do you know that he runs a shop of fried snacks?”

   Mr. Album said, “Didn’t you notice the stains of burnt oil on every one of his clothes – long loin cloth, shirt and cotton napkin?”
    

Kuccha

Ku + cha + ka (according to some, d́a) = kuccha. Ku means the earth, cha, in the sense of chanati or áccháditam = kuccha. Etymologically kuccha means “that which covers the earth beautifully”. In common usage kuccha means the white water lily and the white kahlar flower (a smaller variety of water lily, also known as dhyaṋáper phul or bhet́er phul in Bengali). In Sanskrit literature the word kuccha is used in descriptions of the beauty of the rainy season. The word can be used in this sense in Bengali as well.

Kuja

Ku + jan + d́a = kuja. Etymologically kuja means that which is born from the earth. In common usage, kuja means:

1. “Planet mars”. In ancient times, when the earth was a ball of fire or when the surface was either fluid or very soft, part of the earth was ejected and thrown at a distance; then, instead of revolving around the earth as a satellite, it started revolving around the sun. Since this planet was born from the earth it was named kujagraha. At present this planet kuja is known as Mars. Mars has two satellites of its own – Deimos (demon) and Phobos (fear). According to many, another celestial body was born out of the mass ejected from the earth. The remaining depression left [in the earth’s surface] resulted in the present Pacific Ocean. This celestial body, however, has been moving around the earth and is known at present as the moon. So the Sanskrit word for the Pacific Ocean is kśiirasamudra or kśiirárńava [ocean of thickened milk]. The special hymn for the moon contains the following verse :

   Divyashauṋkhatuśárabhaḿ kśiirodárńavasambhabam,
   Namámi shashinaḿ bhaktyá shambhormukut́abhúśańam.

   [I devotionally salute the moon that is snow-white like the divine conch, who is born out of the Pacific Ocean and who is an ornament in the crown of Lord Shiva.]

   In common parlance Mars is no longer referred to as kuja but in astrology there is profuse use of it. You must have occasionally noticed in the almanac – Shańi rájá Kuja mantrii [“Saturn is the king; Mars is the minister.”]

2. Another meaning of the word kuja is a kind of water vessel, which is known as kuṋjo in Bengali. The word kuṋjo, which is derived from Sanskrit, might have come from the word kuiṋja or it might also have come from kubja.

3. In feminine gender (kujá – like the word latá) one meaning of the word is Parvatii or the daughter of the mountain.

4. In feminine gender another meaning of the word kuja (that is kujá) is Sita, wife of Rama. According to Puranic legend, King Janaka, while tilling the soil, found Sita, safely secured in an eggshell and brought her up as his daughter. That is why Sita is known as the daughter of the earth or kuja.

   The word siita means land that has been cultivated. Asiita means land, which has not been cultivated, that is, fallow land. The feminine form of the word siita is siitá.You should not write the word siita with a short i, because sita means “white”, and a-sita means “that which is not white”, in other words, black. The feminine of sita is sitá. This means a white feminine object; in common usage it means sugar. Since sugar is white, it is also called sitá.

   Dadhi madhuraḿ madhu madhuraḿ, drákśá madhurá sitá’pi madhuraeva,
   Tasya tadeva hi madhuraḿ yasya manah yatra saḿlagnam.

   [Yogurt is sweet, honey is sweet, grapes are sweet, sweet also is sugar, but one whose mind is engrossed in its ideal is sweeter than all these.]

   The words sita and sharkará belong to the same category. It is from the word sharkará that we get words like shakkar, sháṋkhara, saccaharine, sucre, sugar, etc.

Kum + jan + d́a = kuiṋja. Some may think that in this case the consonantal ma is the end-phoneme of a word. No, that is not true. In this case ma is an inflectional form, as in gam + gá = gauṋgá. Here the consonantal ma is an inflectional form and not the verbal terminal ma. Since it is not a terminal ma, the word kuiṋja must be spelt with the fifth letter, that is iṋ, just as gauṋgá must be written with uṋ. I have noticed that in northern and western Indian languages, attempts are made to spell kuiṋja and gauṋgá with m. This is not proper. Etymologically kuiṋja means something that is born or grown from the earth and remains there. In common usage kuiṋja means the following:

1. Tree. A tree is called mahiiruha because it shoots up from the earth. Another name is kuiṋja. A cluster of plants or creepers is also called kuiṋja.

2. The second meaning of kuiṋja is a mountain, hill, knoll, hillock or mound. If there is a range of hills, then the word kuiṋja cannot fully express the meaning – one must say then, parvata kuiṋja – a range of mountains or hills.

3. While constructing a house, one has to first lay the foundation and then gradually move up, building the ground floor, the first floor, the second floor, third floor, and so on. So another meaning of the word kuiṋja is house, particularly the kind of house having multiple, dispersed rooms. In other words, you can easily use the word kuiṋja for a sprawling house that is spread out over a large area.

4. A keṋco/kaiṋcukii/mahiilatá (an earthworm) builds a house of earth and creates a shade and a cover with the help of the earth on its body. So one name of keṋco is mahiilatá. Thus kuiṋja also means an earthworm. In some parts of eastern India an earthworm is called cerá, and in some parts, joṋk. The regions where an earthworm is called joṋk, the actual joṋk, the blood-sucking joṋk (jalaoká – jalauká – jaloká [leech]) is called bhaeśá-joṋk. A cluster of leeches is collectively described as kuiṋja.

5. You must have seen a centipede. This small creature born out of the earth or dwelling in the earth is called kenno in the dialect of Kolkata. In Hooghly region it is called kennui; in Burdwan, kyandai. In some parts of Midnapore I have heard it called kyandrai. This centipede is also called kuiṋja. The word kuiṋja has degenerated into kenno.

6. A small insect, about one inch long or slightly longer, is sometimes seen during the rainy season in the countryside, a little away from the city. It has some width also. It has a soft body…blackish at the back…whitish on the lower side. In some parts of the country side of Hooghly and Burdwan it is called pet́o. The word kuiṋja also means a pet́o.

7. Hair grows under the skin and then pushes its way up, and grows accordingly. The tip of the hair does not grow. That is why hair, and particularly a tuft of hair, is called kuiṋja.

Kuiṋja + ra + d́a = kuiṋjara. Kuiṋja means something that appears to shoot up from under the earth. In common usage Kuiṋjara means the following:

1. A tusker [a tusked elephant].

2. The word kuiṋjara is also used for a person who is well-established and respected by the society. Narakuiṋjara, Vidyákuiṋjara, for example.

3. The third meaning is a palace or a mansion.

4. Another meaning of the word kuiṋjara is abhraḿlehii giri (a high mountain; literally, a sky-kissing mountain).

5. Another meaning of the word kuiṋjara is brick.

6. Another meaning of the word kuiṋjara is ́wavy hair’.

7. Another meaning of the word kuiṋjara is country.

Footnotes

(1) There is a cluster of Shiva temples on the way to Guskara in the northwest part of Burdwan town; in one of these temples there is an image of Ardhanariishvara [literally, Lord Shiva with half the body of a woman].

(2) There are eighteen species of jujube tree in the Kolkata garden of the author – the jujubes range from the very sweet to the very sour.

(3) A fried flat bread stuffed with a spicy paste of pigeon peas. –Trans.

(4) A simple fried flat bread. –Trans.

(5) In Bengal of those days if the son of a zamindar [feudal aristocrat] was a minor or the zamindar himself was not able to look after the estate properly, the Government would take over the responsibility of running the estate. This system of the Government taking charge was called the Court of Wards. For this the Government used to appoint one or more magistrates as the director of the Court of Wards. They used to run the estate until the minor son of the zamindar came of age or the incapable zamindar was considered fit to get back the estate. This Court of Wards used to pay a monthly allowance to the zamindar or his minor heir.

(6) Abhijáta means traditionally aristocratic. Some use instead the word sambhránta. No, it is not proper to use the word sambhránta to mean abhijáta. Sambhránta means one who has made a big blunder (samyak rúpena bhránta – sambhránta).

(7) alagnasparshaka>alaggapaccha>algáchoṋyá >algoch