Kárpat́ika

Karpat́ + t́hak = kárpat́ika. In its etymological sense, kárpat́ika means “a thing related to cloth”.

1. In common usage it refers to “a thing made of cloth”, such as a cotton wrapper, bandage, strip (pat́ii), etc. Many people think that pat́ii is a foreign word. But that is not true. It is a Sanskrit word used in Bengali in its original form.

   You are possibly aware of the fact that there was a time when people used to bother too much about castes. And in this regard, they displayed terrible intolerance. Caste-discrimination was about to strangle humanism. In many cases this happened. People belonging to the so-called lower strata of society were not really considered human beings. In certain spheres they were treated worse than animals. It was not thought that a food item must be discarded – it is not considered so even now – when a mouse, a mole, a fly or mosquito touched it. But what to speak of it being touched by certain so called lower-caste people … or their entering the kitchen … or their sitting in the kitchen veranda – in certain cases, they were even barred from entering the courtyard of the house. Although it was loudly claimed that everything is the manifestation of Brahma, Sarvaḿ khalvidaḿ Brahma, in reality all kinds of casteism were concealed within the boundaries of religion.

   In those days the boomerang of this religious bigotry did not spare even the heads of society. On the contrary, it was Brahmans who did the greatest injury to other Brahmans. The descendents of Krttivas Thakur (his nephew’s line) had to carry a social stigma because Krttivas Thakur had committed the offence of translating the Rámáyańa⁽¹⁾ into Bengali. A high-caste Brahman was downgraded due to leaving his village to settle in another. Thus surnames like Banerjees became Kusháriis, Batabyals, Máscaŕaks; similarly, Chatterjees were downgraded to Káiṋjiilals, Pákŕáshiis; Bhattacharyas became Chakravartis. For a petty offence a person was expelled from his or her caste or expelled from his or her religion. People were forced to renounce their religion or undergo various kinds of persecution under pressure of circumstances. Looking more closely, it would seem that in those days the only job of one class of people was to find fault with others, to ruin people in the name of religion.

   At that time, in the district of Birbhum there was an intelligent man named Deviibar Ghatak. In order to save people from this precarious situation, he formulated a system of communities comprising people who had similar kinds of faults or qualities. As a result, no one could henceforth be summarily expelled from his or her caste. Moreover, since people of similar offences or qualities belonged to the same community, there was no question of vilification of one person by another. Amongst the Brahmans of the Ráŕh region (Banerjee, Mukherjee, Chatterjee, Gaunguly, Ghosal), this community system was called melbandhan (Phuliyá Mel, Sarvánandii Mel, Khardaha Mel, etc.). The same melbandhan was called pat́iibandhan by the Brahmans of the Barendra class (such as Sanyal, Bhadurii, Lahirii, Bagcii, Maetra). Those who had lost their original aristocratic Brahman status but had not yet been fully incorporated into a lower Brahman caste, that is, those who were in an intermediary stage, were called bhauṋgakuliin [a fallen aristocrat]. They are called káp in Barendra society. However, you understand that this pat́ii is neither an indigenous word nor a foreign word but is in fact a Sanskrit word.

2. Another meaning of the word kárpat́ika is thick socks. The thick strip of cloth which soldiers use or formerly used to wrap their legs with is also called kárpat́ika.

3. Kárpat́ika also means “parasite” (pargáchá). Some synonyms of parasite, that is, pargáchá, are parajiivii, kárpat́ika, kántára etc.

Kárpás

Kr + pás = karpás. Karpás means “cotton”. The derivative form of karpás in Mágadhii Prákrta is kápás (in Bengali also – in Bengali it is desirable to use á); in colloquial Maharastrian Prákrta it is kápus. But the original Sanskrit word is karpás and not kárpás.

1. The word kárpás means cotton goods such as shirts, pants, caps, ribbons, etc.

2. Kárpás also means “light socks”. It is better to remember that in ancient times ordinary people used light socks or kárpás, while soldiers used kárpat́ika, or thick socks.

3. In common usage kárpás also means “paper”, because in those days paper was made of cotton. Paper made with cotton through an indigenous process was called tulot́ kágaj [“cottony paper”] in colloquial Bengali. The word kágaj [most common Bengali word for “paper”] is not a native word; it is a foreign word. It has come from Arabic. The original Arabic word is kágad.

Káriká

Karaka + t́á = káriká. Etymologically káriká means someone who does an important and responsible job or is utilized to do such a job. In common usage it has the following meanings:

1. A socially-outcast woman. In ancient times men who were engaged in the profession of spying were called gahapuruśa. They were not generally considered as belonging to the respectable class of society, because they were obliged to do many mean or heinous deeds in the course of their work. The women who were engaged in this profession were called viśakanyá [“poison-girls”]. Generally they used to have poison in their rings. In the event of any possibility of being caught by the enemy or apprehension of a secret being divulged, they would commit suicide by swallowing that poison. That is why they were called viśakanyá. In the course of their work, these viśakanyás had to go to many different places and operate in many undesirable environments. So women of good families did not take up this profession. Generally the job of a poison-girl was done by socially-outcast women. These socially-outcast women engaged in important work were called kárikás.

2. Dance is a science but is presented through artistic skill. The dancers who acquired special proficiency in this artistic skill were called kárikás.

3. Acting is also an art of high order. The actresses who acquired special proficiency in this art were called kárikás.

4. People who propagated the main ideas of a theory or a thesis in the society were called exponents of that theory. Generally the exponents did not explicate their theories themselves; the interpreter was usually a different person. The explication of a theory according to the words used [in the text] was called t́iika. Special explanation or criticism of a particular part of a theory was called t́ippani or annotation. General interpretation, glossary and annotations used to be presented separately. But if all these items were rolled into one and incorporated into one discourse, then it was called káriká. For example, we have Sáḿkhyakáriká, Dhámatiikáriká, Vaeyásikakáriká, etc.

5. An idea, whether simple or complex, remains confined to the world of thought unless it receives the golden touch of reality. An unrealized idea is of less value than even the ice of the polar regions. In order to translate an idea into reality, it is essential to combine the wisdom of the mind with a longing [for the implementation of the idea]. The process of manifesting an idea involves several operations. First, there is a mental planning about how to manifest the idea in reality. Secondly, providing the strength necessary to translate the thought into action is required. Thirdly, the strengthening of the infrastructure on the ground for its immediate and subsequent expression must be done. When all these three conditions are harmoniously combined with a touch of expertise, then and only then can an idea attain manifestation in reality. This manifestation of an idea is called káriká.

6. In very few cases is an idea translated into reality on the strength of one single person or due to the scholarly motivation of that one person. In most cases it needs a medium or more than one medium. This medium is also known as a káriká.

7. An action is always prompted by an inner inspiration. This inspirational force is sometimes internal in origin [inherent in the individual], at other times external in origin [derived from another person]. Whatever may be the case, it is a kind of samvit [awakened consciousness], and if this samvit is not there, the result is never realized. This samvit is also called káriká.

8. Every creature needs a means of livelihood for its existence. With this means of livelihood, one preserves one’s physical existence and makes the necessary existential enhancements and refinements. This enhancement, refinement or preservation of one’s structure is referred to as the crude means of living. The lower animals may have some need for a psychic means of livelihood in addition to their need for a physical means of livelihood, but human beings have a great need for a psychic means of livelihood. It is so indispensable – be it a crude or subtle or causal entity – that the mind rushes to it and revolves round it. This psychic objectivity is called mental pabulum. In the absence of this mental pabulum a human being loses mental balance and either becomes a lunatic or die. Some animals of a high order also face the same fate. This mental pabulum is also called káriká.

9. Soon after the beginning of civilization, that is, soon after men formed communities or societies, the practices of lending, borrowing and usury came into existence. The rate of interest was determined in different ages and at different places by the intensity of the need to lend or to borrow. Whatever may be the kind of usury, the entire process of usury is known as káriká.

10. You have seen the shyámá bird. A shyámá bird [a song bird of the thrush family] is a small bird. You also must have heard the song of the shyámá bird throughout Bengal. Do you recall there is a song by the poet, Satyendranath Datta: Kotháy d́áke doyel shyámá phiuṋe gáche gáche nácere [“Where do you find that place where doyels⁽²⁾ and shyámás sing and phiuṋes⁽³⁾ dance on the branches of a tree?”] Yes,I am talking about that shyámá bird. This shyámá bird is also called káriká bird or kálriká bird or kálri bird.

11. All of you must have tasted watermelon. Watermelons are of various kinds. The skin of some is black, of others green, and of still others whitish. Some have red pulp, some slightly reddish, and others yellow. Those with yellow pulp are Chinese watermelons; they are very small in size but extremely sweet. According to botanists, the place of origin of the watermelon is the Arab countries. Whatever may be the case, it is generally presumed that this watermelon first came to Kaliuṋga [coastal Orissa] by a sea route. That is why, irrespective of its shape and size, the watermelon is called káliuṋga (kaliuṋga + ań) in chaste Bengali. The black-skinned watermelon in particular is called káriká or káliká or káliiphalam. A Kharmujá [muskmelon] is called kharmuj in Bengali; in Sanskrit it is called sphot́ak or sphot́an. And phut́i or báuṋgi [another smaller variety] is called sphut́ika. So you understand that káriká also means a watermelon with black skin.

12. All of you have eaten curd, or yoghurt. In towns yoghurt is generally bought from the market. But many people curdle milk at home if sufficient milk is available. In order to make dai, or yoghurt (dadhi > dahi > dai), it is necessary to mix some acidic substance after the milk has been heated. This acidic substance is called dadhyamla (dadhi + amla) in Sanskrit, the colloquial Bengali form of which is dambal. In some places dambal is called joŕan. It is this dambal which is also called káriká or káliká or kálrii.

Káru

By using the suffix uń with the verbal root kr, we get the word káru. The etymological meaning of the word káru is “devotion to work” or “to go on working efficiently”.

1. In common usage, káru means any kind of fine work. Whether it is needle work or crochet work, woodwork or work with chisel and hammer, if the final product is of superfine quality, we call it káru. In this connection you should remember one thing. Only work done by hand is called shilpa [art] or shilpankriyá [an art product]. In other words, shilpa or shilpana means work in which manual skill is required. If you use the word hastashilpa, you commit the fallacy of tautology, because hastashilpa would literally mean “a handicraft made by hand”. When referring to a good singer, people sometimes use the word kant́hashilpii [vocal artist]. The word sounds like the expression “a gold iron-cup” [or a square circle]. Where is the action of the hand when singing with one’s throat? But one can use the word setárshilpii [sitar artist], because the hands are used when playing the sitar. However, if someone can sing songs of a very high quality, such singing can be placed in the category of káru, because it is a superior skill.

2. In ancient times a small, very sharp and whetted chisel called naruń was used when working with metal and wood. The work done with this kind of chisel is called káru. There was a time, in Vishnupur of Mallabhum, that naruń was used in renowned terracotta works. So they also fall in the category of káru.

3. Engravings done on wood, metal or any other material, irrespective of the kind of implements used, were considered part of káru.

4. The art of presenting a scientific theory or thesis to the common people in a delectable manner also comes under the category of káru. For example, acoustics is a science, but exemplifying it through delightful musical sound does not belong to science; it belongs to art. This kind of art is also a part of káru. And this art may or may not be shilpana [arts and crafts using one’s hands].

5. All arts and crafts where tools are used will be included in the category of káru-vidyá [káru crafts].

6. The profession of people who are involved in the káru-vidyá mentioned above is also known as káru.

7. A human being is compelled to do something for survival. Some people use domestic animals in various ways for their livelihood. For example, a person domesticates bulls to use them in tilling the soil or in pulling the cart. A bull does not till the soil or draw a cart on his own. Some persons pull rickshaws, others drive taxis, run shops, write books, and still others teach students – all these are means of livelihood. All these are public vocations; there is nothing secret about them. This kind of public vocation is also called káru.

8. Many people often have a secret profession in addition to their public profession. For example, there are people who work as farmers during the daytime but commit dacoity at night; other people officially work in various organizations but are secretly engaged in smuggling. In some cases the income from this secret profession is much more than the income from their public means of livelihood. Their public profession in such cases is only a charade. The secret money-making methods of these corrupt people, or this secret profession, is also called káru.

9. A passable bath does not take much time. But it takes a lot of time to cleanse the body thoroughly or to satisfactorily massage the body with oil. A busy person can afford to have such a thorough bath only on holidays. Another name for such a rigorous bath is kárukarańa.

   There are some people who are over-sensitive to cold (kámbala); and there are some persons and animals that are sensitive to bath. Cows, goats and several other kinds of animals are extremely scared of bath. If you sprinkle a few drops of water on them, they will at once run away. There are some persons also who not only avoid kárukarańa [rigorous bath] but avoid their usual bath on some pretext or the other. Such a person would sometimes say, “Today it is very cold,” or sometimes would say, “Today I have caught a cold,” or again at another time would say, “Today I am in a great hurry, so in spite of my willingness, I cannot have a bath today.” We shall call such persons bath-sensitive. Such bath-scared people should be bathed by force.

   Since one meaning of káru is shilpii [craftsman], Vishvakarmá, the Puranic god, is also called káru. According to this legend, Brahmá, [mythological god of creation], at the request of Yama [god of death], created Citragupta⁽⁴⁾ (the forefather of the Kayastha caste) out of his own body. In the capacity of office superintendent, Citragupta keeps the records of the death ceremonies of the world for the god Yama. Similarly, Brahmá created Vishvakarmá from his body at the request of Baebasvata Manu. Of course Brahmá, according to Baevasvata Manu, had been carrying on the act of creation, but due to his unsophisticated knowledge of art, his creations were becoming very uninteresting. It is said that the moment he was born, Vishvakarmá brought about a flow of infinite variety in creation. After the last day of Bhádra [the fifth month of the Bengalee calendar, from mid-August to mid-September], the picturesque variety of autumnal beauty becomes conspicuous throughout the land. So in some parts of the country people worship Vishvakarmá, the god of artistic creativity, on the last day of Bhádra.

   There are serious differences of opinion amongst connoisseurs of art regarding the mount of Visvakarmá. According to some, it is a peacock, a symbol of variegated colours; according to others, it is a pánikot́ika or pánkaoŕi [a species of seabird akin to the cormorant], and something still different according to others.

   In the artistic imagination, it was once thought that Vishvakarmá was obliged to stop thrice during the course of his creative activities. It so happened that he was unable to imagine a new animal, and then, by putting together parts of different animals, he created the camel, the ship of the desert. Different parts of the camel have similarities to the parts of various animals. A Bactrian camel has two humps. On another similar occasion, Vishvakarmá paused and, putting together parts of different horned animals, created a new kind of horned animal. It is this horned animal which is known as niilgái, or the Indian antelope. He paused for the third time when planning the creation of a tree that can be compared to a human being. This time he happened to create the coconut. Do you not you think that the different parts of a coconut have similarities with various parts of a human being? You must have noticed the large and round, eye-like holes of a coconut near the stalk. In any case, one meaning of káru is Vishvakarmá.

Kárńa

Karńa + ań = kárńa. The etymological meaning of the word is “ears” or “related to the ears (auricular)”. Etymologically, an ear ornament is also called kárńa. In common usage kárńa means “earring”. Another meaning of the word kárńa is “the antelope group of creatures”. Although deer and antelope are similar, there are certain differences. For example:

1. The faeces of deer are like pellets, like the faeces of goats or sheep. The excrement of an antelope is clayish or viscid like cow dung or the excrement of a buffalo, horse or elephant.

2. Generally the tail of a deer is short and tilted slightly upward. The tail of an antelope, however, hangs downward like the tail of a cow.

3. Frequently but not always, a deer gives very little milk; in comparison the milk of an antelope is somewhat greater in amount.

4. In most cases a deer has two teats, while an antelope has four.

5. A deer moves faster than an antelope. The famous krśnasár mrga [black deer] of India, which is called a deer by many, is actually an antelope. The animals residing in the Gauṋgá basin also belong to the antelope family.

6. The call of a deer is also different from the call of an antelope.

7. The animals of the deer family are more timorous than the animals belonging to the antelope family.

8. The animals of the antelope family have more flesh.

9. When the animals of the dog family or cat family get a chance to kill either a deer or an antelope, they first attack the antelope, although the antelope fights for some time in self-defence, while a deer makes no such effort.

10. In some cases, species of the antelope family surrender to domestication, while in other cases they do not; but animals of the deer family can rarely be domesticated. Quite often it has been seen that even a deer domesticated for a long time, once set free, never wants to return.

11. Species of the deer family like to live in freedom, even if involving hardship, although they do not feel this as strongly as a jackal or a zebra. But most species of the antelope accept domestication if given comfortable conditions. Of course, there are exceptions.

Kárśńa

Krśńa + ań = kárśńa. The etymological meaning of kárśńa is “something related to krśńa [which can mean ́black’]” or “related to the colour black”. In common usage, kárśńa means “the black antelope”, also known as the alpaca. The silky, scintillating cloth made from the wool of the alpaca is also called “alpaca”. Due to human exploitation, this species of antelope known as “alpaca” has become virtually extinct. Two words, krśńakárńa and kárśńa, can be used for the alpaca.

Kála

We get the word kála by adding the suffix ghaiṋ to the verbal root kál. The verbal root kál means, “to sound”, “to measure”, “to count”, “to weigh”. So in its etymological sense, kála means “what has been measured” or “what has been sounded”. In common usage, by kála we understand the following:

1. A measurement of time. The moon moves around the earth. In its orbit, it crosses the twelve houses of the zodiac. The mind’s measurement of this single revolution is called kála [which sometimes means “time” in general], and this particular time taken by the moon is called a lunar month. For nearly half of this lunar month the moon remains in a diminishing or waning process due to the narrowing of the reflection of the sun. The rest of the time it remains in a gradually waxing condition due to the broadening of the reflection of the sun. So we have divided the lunar month into two fortnights – the bright fortnight (shukla pakśa) and the dark fortnight (krśńa pakśa), starting with the new moon and the full moon respectively. These two fortnights are also measurements of time.

   The time taken by the earth to go around the sun when it passes through the twelve houses of the zodiac is called a solar year (365 or 366 days). During this solar year, because of the angular difference in the axis, sometimes the northern part of the earth tilts towards the sun, and at other times the southern part. Accordingly we sometimes say “northern tilt” [summer solstice], and at other times “southern tilt” [winter solstice]. In order to present it symbolically, we say that the sun is in the Tropic of Cancer or in the Tropic of Capricorn. All these are also measurements of time. Every house of the zodiac subtends an angle of 30 degrees at the centre. Although in every case it makes a 30 degree angle, the segments of the orbit are not equal. So the earth takes different times to cross the various segments. We call the time taken to cross one segment a solar month. A solar month generally consists of 30 or 31 days, but in rare cases it may also be 29 or even 32 days. All these are kálas.

   The mental measurement of the motivity of action and the result of the measurement are called time. So time is not a beginningless and unbroken entity. In the world of imagination the concept of eternity or Mahákála [Eternal Kála] is both charming and terrible, but in the phenomenal world the measure-ments or the measuring units of time do not exist when the mind is absent or non-existent. That is why in purely philosophical speculation, the notion of an eternal, undivided temporal reality suffers from the fallacy of infinite regress. In ancient times some people imagined eternity as a summation of these fragments of time or as Mahákála, and others developed the philosophy of kśańiikavijiṋánaváda or the science of moments (a Buddhist doctrine), based on the assumption that the rapid passage of time is a moving entity. Although not wholly theoretical but to some extent practical, the Kálacakrayána Tantra⁽⁵⁾, the Hevajra Tantra and the Kauṋkálamálinii Tantra by and large subscribe to this view.

2. The word kála means “sound”; in special cases, the sound of death.

3. Another meaning of the word kála is negative colour (not colourlessness). Negative colour means absolutely black colour.

4. Kála also means a kálabhujaga or water snake. Bhujaga means “one who walks with one’s hands” (bhuj + gam + d́a = bhujaga). In the villages of Bengal, well-known non-poisonous snakes such as dhoṋŕá, dhyámná and jaldhoṋŕá, fall in the category of kálabhujaga. They are not as dangerous as their names would suggest; in fact, they are not dangerous at all. They have been given such names possibly because they are rather large in size.

5. Every manifested object of this universe has a definite dimension. It comes from an unknown world, enters a particular circuit of time and then returns to the unknown world. This coming, staying in motion, and then returning to the unknown world constitute its existential time. The last point of existential time completes the temporal fullness of its life. That is why, both in Sanskrit and in Bengali, death is called kála. If someone after climbing a tall tree falls down and dies, we say, “Climbing the tree was his kála.”

6. In English we use the word “blue-black” to suggest the mixture of the jet-black and dark blue colours. Many of you must have used ink of this blue-black colour. Its speciality is such that its blue is so dark that it seems to have merged into the jet-black. That is why another name for this blue-black colour is kálánta varńa [“the colour at the end of black”] .This kálánta varńa is called kála. Another meaning of the word kálánta is “the end of an age”.⁽⁶⁾ We can call the end of the Satyayuga, Satyayugánta or Satyakálánta. By kálántar we understand that one age is coming to an end and another age is about to begin.

7. There is a particular [social] condition on one side of yugasandhi, that is, the point of transition, and another condition on the other side. The fixed system, according to which the temporal end of all beings is brought about by the Absolute, is also called kála. For that reason, another name of the mythological god [of death] Yamarája is kála. Pluto, the western god of ancient times, may be called kála in this sense. Since Yamarája brings about the temporal anta [end] of the life of a creature, another name of Yama is kálántaka.

8. The Entity who keeps on beating the drum of time, and at whose instance the message of time is sounded, echoed and vibrated in entities everywhere – that fearful entity or Bhaerava (bhae + rava = bhaerava, “one whom people fear”) – is called Kálabhaerava. “Kálabhaerava” is another name of Lord Shiva. Those persons who, inspired by this Cosmic acoustic centre of Shiva, create ever-new epicentres in their psychic sphere and transmit the various acoustic effects throughout the world, are called bhaeravas. And their primal source, that is, Shiva, is called “Kálabhaeerava”.

9. Shiva is called Paiṋcánana or Paiṋcavaktraḿ due to his multiple manifestations. It is not that he has five faces but that he has five different manifestations. It is said:

   Dhyáyennityaḿ maheshaḿ rajatagirinibhaḿ cárucandravataḿsam,
   Ratnakalpojjvaláuṋgaḿ parashu-mrga- barábhiitihastaḿ prasannam.
   Padmásiinaḿ samantáḿ stutamamaragańaerbyághrakrttiḿ vasánam,
   Vishvádyaḿ vishvabiijaḿ nikhilabhayaharaḿ paiṋcavaktraḿ trinetram.

   [One should constantly meditate on Maheshvara, who is like a silver mountain, whose ornament is the lovely moon – whose limbs are brightened with the splendour of jewels, with axe in hand, holding animals, bestowing boons, ever-blissful – seated in lotus posture, wearing a tiger-skin, worshipped by all the Gods – the seed, the cause of this vast world,who removes the boundless fears of the entire universe – the One with the five faces and three eyes.]

   Shiva symbolizes the beginning of a new era in humanity’s evolutionary march. In order to mould the character of a person, it is also necessary to discipline that person. So for those five manifestations, it is as if Shiva had five faces. The face just to the right of the central face is called Iishána – one who asks human beings to follow the path of righteousness and tells them to refrain from following the path of unrighteousness. The extreme face on the right side is called Dakśińeshvara – one who always remains with those persons who are inspired by righteous thoughts. The first face on the left side is called Kálágni – one who rules people for their welfare. The extreme face on the left side is called Vámadeva – one who rules very strictly with the scepter of thunder. This Vámadeva is a terror for sinners due to its severity. The central face of Shiva, with its expression of profound mercy, is called Kalyáńasundaram. However, the word kála is also used for the first face on the left side, which is generally known as Kálágni.

10. You certainly know that in Sanskrit, in a general sense, kaláya means any kind of pulse. In the spoken language of Kolkata kaŕái is used. Kaŕáibhájá or fried kaŕái means any kind of fried pulse. In the Ráŕh region also, in some places mung pulse is called mugkalái, and khesárii pulse is called khesáriikaláya. In a special sense, the word kaláya is used to mean birikalái or black gram. This birikalái is called biulir dál in the Kolkata area. In its different varieties it is called maskalái in Bengali and máśa or máśakaláya in Sanskrit. In the Gorkhali language also it is called máśa, while in Punjabi it is called máśa or máh. Kaláis of the large variety are called rájmáśa or rájmáh. Whatever the case may be, one name of this birikalái⁽⁷⁾, which is highly nutritious, is kála or kálakaláya.

11. Siisaka [lead] or siisá is a soft metal; it also melts very easily (siisaka > siisa-a > siisá > siise). The human beings came in touch with lead soon after the dawn of civilization. Even in Sanskrit the word siisaka is very old. The use of different chemical products made of lead can also be traced back to very ancient times. The vermilion that most Indian women used was a lead product. But the vermilion that today’s women use is made with the help of mercuric sulphide. However, in some communities the lead-based vermilion that is colloquially called met́esindur is still in use. The word siisá that is used by certain people in North India to mean glass is not derived from the Sanskrit siisaka; it is a foreign word. Molten lead or the lead that has been melted is also called kála.

12. While cooking, sometimes the bottom of a pot is burnt due to carelessness. As a result, the food being cooked also is burnt. In that case, the burnt food not only emits a smouldering smell, it becomes either fully or partly blackened. That fully burnt or half-burnt food is called kála.

13. Iron or material made of iron rusts if kept in a humid atmosphere. This rust is also called kála.

14. The planet Saturn is bluish according to some and blackish according to others. This planet, situated quite far from the sun, has various distinctive features. Since it has a large number of satellites, these satellites together form a type of ring, and due to the refractions of light particles from this ring, certain changes have taken place in the colour of its body. According to the Puranic legend, the sun is the father of Saturn, and the shadow, the wife of the sun, is its mother. That is why Saturn was also named Cháyátanaya [the son of the shadow]. Another name for Saturn or Shani (it can also be spelt as Shańi) or Cháyátanaya is kála or kálagraha.

15. The number of black birds is not vast, but also not meager either. Of these, one is kokila [cuckoo] or kákapuccha [one with the tail of a crow]. Kála or kálapakśii is a synonym for cuckoo, that is, kokila or pika or kálapuccha.

16. I told you a little while ago that kálabhujaga does not necessarily mean a dangerous snake. The water snake, particularly jaldhoṋŕá, is called kálabhujaga. But the snake called kála or kálanága is very dangerous. Kálanága means king cobra (shauṋkhacuŕa). This snake can be from 12 to 14 feet long in the Sunderban region. But it is much longer in countries like Burma, Thailand and Kambouj (Vietnam, Combodia and Laos) etc. In some places it can be as long as 22 feet or even 24 feet. Its hood displays a spiral pattern like a conch shell, and that is the reason why this poisonous snake is called shauṋkhacuŕa, in the sense that it has a conch shell on its crown.

    Because of humanity’s ruthless destruction, the shauṋkhacuŕa species is on the verge of extinction. If steps are not taken immediately for its preservation, we may find it extinct in the near future. They will meet the same fate as the dodo birds of Africa and the leopards of India.

17. Iron ore, hematite or unrefined iron in any form is called káladhátu [black metal]. When the principal metal is extracted after melting the entire quantity of unrefined metal, then it is again melted for various uses. In Sanskrit and in Bengali, sometimes various words are used for unrefined metal and refined metal. Take, for example, the word rúpya. One meaning of rúpya is sudarshana (in masculine gender), “good looking” or “handsome”; sudarshaná is feminine (beautiful), unrefined rúpo [silver], unrefined sońá [gold], unrefined silver bar, unrefined gold bar, etc. A refined silver bar must be called rajatarúpya or rajatadańd́a [silver stick], a refined gold bar must be called suvarńarúpya or suvarńadańd́a [gold stick], a piece of unrefined silver or gold must be called rúpyakaḿ, refined silver must be called raopya, refined gold will be called svarńa, suvarńa, kaiṋcana, kańaka, hema, hirańa, jámbunada, etc. A refined piece of silver or a silver coin will be called raopyakaḿ⁽⁸⁾ (the word t́áká has come from its other name, t́auṋká). In the same way, the unrefined iron is called kála. For refined iron there is no need to use the word kála. But in ancient Sanskrit literature, I have seen the occasional use of the word kála for refined iron; it would have been better not to use it in that manner.

18. Many of you have possibly seen pine trees. This tree of the deodar family likes a slightly cold climate. In some parts of India this tree is called deodár [Polyalthia longifolia]. In other places, our very familiar devadáru tree is called ashoka⁽⁹⁾ (Sarica indica). It is absolutely improper to use the word ashoka for deodár. Ashoka does not belong to the pine family. It prefers a wet and warm climate. Although the ashoka flower is generally slightly reddish, there are also yellow, golden and white ashoka flowers. This tree, belonging to the sarica indica family, has thick and bushy foliage. But a pine tree or deodár is tall and straight. Pine wood is used in making paper and also in making matchsticks. The gum or resin of the pine tree has many chemical uses and is also used for medicinal purposes. The word rasáiṋjana is used for both the gum and the oil of pine. The special name for pine oil is rasataela. Another name for resins or pine – rasáiṋjana – is kála. Pine oil has been in use as a medicine for phlegmatic diseases. It shares similar properties with eucalyptus oil.

19. What we describe as aguru [incense powder] we actually get from the black juice produced by a type of small insect from the tree known as ágara [Aloe wood; Aquillaria agollacha]. On entering the tree, these insects eat up parts of the tree and produce a black-coloured juice from their bodies through a [particular] chemical process. Since ancient times, this black juice is well known as aguru. The tree is called ágara because it [aguru] is obtained from this tree. Ágara trees grow in regions where there is heavy rainfall. It requires special care to sustain it in regions having light rainfall. In our part of Bengal, names like Ágarpárá, Ágartalá, etc., owe their origin to the ágara tree. The practice of making incense sticks by using rice paste and pounded aguru-smeared wood was prevalent even in ancient times. Such an incense stick is called ágarvátti in Hindustani even today, although neither ágara wood nor rice paste is used presently to make an ágarvátti [incense stick]. One variety of ágara⁽¹⁰⁾ is called kála or kálagandha or káláguru. Regarding the toilette of the girls of ancient India, Tagore writes:

    Kuruvaker parto cúŕá kálo kesher májhe,
    Liilákamal raito háte kii jáni kon káje.
    Alaka sájto kunda phule siriiś parto karńamúle
    Mekhaláte duliye dito navaniiper málá,
    Lodhraphuler shubhra reńu mákhto mukhe bálá.
    Dhárájantre snáner sheśe dhúper dhoṋyá dito keshe,
    Kálágurur guru gandha lege thákto sáje,
    Kuruvaker parto cúŕá kálo kesher májhe.

    [Girls used to crown their head by putting a red amaranth in their thick black locks, and used to hold a lovely lotus in their hand – I do not know why. They used to decorate their hair with multi-petaled jasmine; they used flowers of the rain tree as earrings; they used a garland of kadamba flowers as girdles; they used to powder their faces with the pollen of lodhra⁽¹¹⁾ , a cosmetic powder; they used to spray the smoke of incense sticks on the their hair after bathing. The heavy smell of kálaguru used to be a part of their cosmetics. They used to crown their heads by putting a red amaranth in their thick black locks.]

20. We have already spoken about kálabhujaga and kálanága. You must have also heard about kálasarpa. The black cobra is a subspecies of gokśura [Cobra de capello]. A gokśura is called gokhro in the Kolkata region. In the Ráŕh region, both the names – gokhro and kharis – are prevalent. Gokśura has many species and subspecies – káligokhro, padmagokhro, shauṋkha gokhro, etc., are examples. The Gokhro variety of snake generally lives in an old house in a residential area. When the tail of a very old gokśura falls off, quite often the people, instead of killing it, allow it to live in the house, and then they call it vástusápa [a residential snake]. The keut́e or cobra has several species and subspecies, such as kálakeut́e, álkeut́e, etc. A cobra generally lives outdoors in fields away from human habitation. The kálakeut́e generally lives away from human habitation in forests, bushes and shrubs.

    Since the body of álkeut́e is very warm [in comparison to other snakes], it usurps rat holes on the sides of earth ridges surrounding plots of pieces of agricultural land and lives there. When it feels very hot, it keeps its body submerged in water, keeping only its head above the water. Although álkeut́e is short, thin and as poisonous as any snake of the cobra family, its temper is always very hot ... If any person walking on the ridge inadvertently disturbs its peace, it at once rushes out and bites that person. But other snakes do not rush out to bite; they bite only in self-defence. Álkeut́e, kálakeut́e and common keut́e – all three – cannot stand heat. Many times they lie entwined along the rail lines at night when the rails are somewhat cold. On hearing the sound of a coming train, other snakes flee the rail lines, but the ill-tempered keut́e does not. Possibly it thinks, “Whom do I fear enough to run away from?” Accordingly it remains on the line. So most of the snakes that are run over by trains in the summertime are keut́es. The Sanskrit name of this keut́e is krśńagokśura or kálasarpa.

    The word sarpa is derived from the verbal root srp, which means “to crawl on the chest”. In English also, the word “reptile” means “to crawl with the support of the chest”. This krśńagokśura or kálasarpa can be called simply kála

    The snake is one of the oldest creatures on earth. The snake appeared on the earth long before the appearance of quadrupeds, in fact, even long before the appearance of birds. The snake belongs to the reptile species. The nature of the snake’s blood makes it difficult for it to survive in a cold country. Even in hot countries, snakes go into hibernation for several months during winter. Generally it can be said that the few snakes we find in cold countries are nonpoisonous. Snakes live primarily in tropical countries, particularly where there are adequate wet lands. In Bengal, India and Southeast Asia, particularly in the land of Shyámdesh [Thailand], the number of snakes and reptiles is exorbitantly high. I had direct, eye-witness experience of this when I was in Thailand. The climate of Bengal is fairly similar to that of Thailand. That is why Bengal is nearly as snake-infested as Thailand. A poet of Bengal has said :

    Bágher sauṋg yuddha kariyá ámrá báṋciyá áchi,
    Ámrá heláya nágere khelái sáperi mátháy náci.

    [We have survived fighting with tigers. We easily make the snake play and dance on its head.]

    There are not only more snakes in hot countries, they also have more venom in their bodies. This is the reason why in the villages of Bengal there are so many snakebite healers or ojhás. Due to fear of snakes, the domination of the snake goddess, Viśahari or Manasá, is also strongly felt [in India]. All over India there are many legends celebrating the glory of Manasá. The stories of Manasámauṋgal⁽¹²⁾, Padmávatii (Padumávát) as well the stories of Behulá and Lakhindar are particularly prevalent in eastern India. Most villages organize ritualistic ceremonies related to Manasá in the month of Bhádra. These ceremonies are held more often in the villages that have greater fear of snakes.

    Ye auṋge sayná kabhu shiuli phuler bhar
    Sei auṋge daḿshila re kála viśadhar;
    Lakhiindar, Lakhiindar, ámár Lakhiindar.

    [What a pity it is that the delicate body, unable to bear the weight of the night-jasmine flower, is bitten by the deadly poisonous cobra ... Oh Lakhiindar, Oh Lakhiindar, Oh my Lakhiindar! ...]

    *   *   *

    Shrávańete jhulan-dolan pathya ghrta-muŕi,
    Bhádramáse pántábhát khán Manasá buŕi.

    [During the swing-festival in the month of Shrávańa, the goddess Manasá eats fried rice and ghee. In the month of Bhádra she eats stale rice.]

    A snake runs away on seeing smoke. So Manasá, the snake-goddess, also does not like smoke. So runs the proverb, like eke má manasá tár opare dhunor gandha [“First it is Mother Manasá, and then on top of it the smell of burning incense.”] A snake fears the human being more than a human being fears the snake. However, defeated in the war of intelligence, the snake family is about to disappear completely from the surface of the earth. Furthermore, after human beings came to know about the medicinal values of snake venoms, they began killing snakes to collect their venom. Snake venom is used in various medicines prepared in allopathy, unani, ayurveda and homeopathy, (nyajá-cobra). In the Indian ayurvedic system, the effectiveness of spider venom, bee venom and snake venom in the treatment of poison has been clearly stated.

    In astrology, a particular, malefic constellation of stars is called kálasarpayoga. Some people believe that the congregation of too many planets in one particular house of the zodiac can bring about a cataclysmic upheaval in the world, and according to others, it can cause the total dissolution of the world. But, it has been seen that no such catastrophe takes place in reality. It is just possible, in the worst case scenario, that when a number of planets crowd together in the same orbit or the same angle of a particular house (of the zodiac), there is some radiational imbalance [from the planets]. This imbalance will not necessarily bring about a catastrophe – who knows, it may do good instead. Whatever the case may be, you are now acquainted with the word kálasarpayoga.

21. There are certain trees and plants that contain [[lethal]] poison. A person who knows these plants avoids them. Roots, barks, juices, fruits, flowers and seeds containing deadly poison are used by human beings for making medicines. Our very familiar kalke flower [Yellow oleander; Thevetia peruviana] is one such tree. Its flower or floral nectar does not contain any poison. But the fruits that appear after the flowers have fallen off contain poison. Out of these fruits people prepare deadly poison through various methods. A vegetable poison is generally called kála. The word kála is particularly used for the kalke flower.

Footnotes

(1) An epic poem of India. It is the story of King Rama, or Ramchandra. –Trans.

(2) Magpie robin of Bengal. –Trans.

(3) A fork-tailed bird. –Trans.

(4) The witty people ask: Is it for this reason that the Kayasthas are such experts in maintaining records and bookkeeping?

(5) The Kálacakrayána Tantra, the Hevajra Tantra and the Kauṋkálamálinii Tantra are a mixture of Shaeva [related to Shiva], Shákta [related to Shakti, i.e., Supreme Energy] and Buddhist Tantras.

(6) But Kalpánta means the end of the four ages. In other words, when at the end of the four ages – Satya, Tretá, Dvápara and Kali – again the turn comes for Satya Yuga, we call that time Kalpánta.

(7) The birikalái contains the qualities of all types of pulses. Moreover, it is the most nutritious of all the easily available [cheap] pulses.

(8) These days I see that Sanskrit words like rúpyakyaḿ, rúpyakáńi, etc., are used to mean táká, i.e., promissory note. Would it not have been proper to use the words, raúpyakaḿ, raoupyakáńi, etc?

(9) In the garden of the author there are ashoka trees bearing flowers of different colours.

(10) There are ágara trees in the garden of the author in Kolkata.

(11) Symplocos racemosa.–Trans.

(12) Vijaygupta is the writer – he was inhabitant of Fullashree near Gaila village of Bhakharganj District.