Áṋt

This word comes from the word átmá [soul, or consciousness]. The Sanskrit word átmá in Mágadhii Prákrta, specifically in the case of Occidental Demi-Mágadhii, becomes attá (attá hi attánaḿ náth). In the case of Eastern Demi-Mágadhii it becomes attán. From that comes the modern Bengali ánttá. Ánt is a shortened form of ánttá. Ánte ghá means “a deep offense to the inner self”. (Se ánte ghá diye kathá bale. [“His words offend deeply.”])

Áṋtke Ot́há

From átmá we get the word átmika and from this we get the word ántti in old Bengali. Ántke ot́há means “that condition in which the átmá is also disturbed”, that is, when such an agitation occurs in the mental sphere that it also produces agitation in the self or spirit. Átaunkita haoyá and ántke ot́há are not the same thing. Átaunkita haoyá can go on for days or months together while ántke ot́há is purely temporary.

Átá

The word pedar in Farsi, which is a member of the Vedic family of languages, comes from the Vedic word pitr. Europe’s Latin family of languages contains a large number of words descended from Vedic: Petar, pear, father, etc., have all come from the Vedic word pitr. Pitá means “he who rears”, or “he who protects”. From the word pitá comes the old Turkish word itá – in medieval Turkish atá/átá. Kemal Pasha did a lot for the people of Turkey so he was called Kemal Atatürk.

The fruit which we know by the name of átá [custard-apple] is not native to this country. The Portuguese brought it from South America about 450 years ago. They called it áttá or áttis in their Iberian language. They planted custard-apple trees in their Bandel Church garden (it is the oldest church in Bandel). Afterwards it spread to the rest of India in a very short time with the help of birds. Today you find custard-apple trees everywhere in India, in the forests, jungles, and fields, and on the paths and river-banks. The custard-apple tree does not like too much rain; it grows well in same laterite soil that the papaya grows so well in.

The Spanish ruled the Philippines⁽¹⁾ for a long period of time and brought this fruit with them; they called it áttis.

The noná fruit [a variety of custard-apple] also originated in South America; its real name is anona murikát́á. The Bengali word noná has come from the word anona. Neither átá nor noná has any name in old Sanskrit. In modern Sanskrit átá is called sitáphal⁽²⁾ and noná is called rámphal. In a large part of northern and central India átá is called sitáphal and noná is called rámphal. The word átá is prevalent throughout eastern India. In Urdu the fruit is called shariifá.

Noná, unlike átá, prefers black or loamy soil and more rain, and its fruit is not as well liked. Noná also has distinct eyes, as átá does, but its scent is not as tempting.

Átar

The original Farsi word is iitr. Iitr means “essence”. If this essence has food value then the word rúh is used in Farsi, and in the case of a pleasing scent iitr is used. The word átar came into use due to distortion and confusion, but in subsequent times the word gained acceptance through usage.

Koh means “mountain”. The mountain of iitr or sweet scent is known as kohiitr (koh + i + iitr). This kohiitr is the name of a well-known variety of mango from Murshidabad. We mistakenly say kohitur.

Iitr was first discovered by Empress Núrjáhán. Jáhán means vishvabrahmáńd́a⁽³⁾. Núr means “light”. Koh-i-núr means “mountain of light”.

I think it is important to mention here that the diamond which is known as kohinúr [Koh-i-Noor] was the locket [pendant] on Shrii Krśńa’s jewelled necklace. After many battles and campaigns it came into the hands of Nadir Shah, and after that, Punjabkesharii Ranjit Singh. After him, Jhindan got it, and finally it came into the hands of the East India Company. They had it cut and polished in Holland and then had it set in the British Royal Crown, although some people are of the opinion that it was not set in the crown but was preserved in a different place. Whatever may be, Krśńa’s kaostúbhamańi and the kohinúr are one and the same.

Now let us come back to the actual subject. By mixing rose essence with water, Núrjáhán invented the process of preparing rosewater. It is said that she used to bathe daily in rosewater. By mixing rose essence with sandalwood oil she invented rose iitr. Later she started to prepare other types of iitr by using flowers other than rose.

Núrjáhán was a Persian lady. This uncommonly beautiful woman was sold by her father in India. Her real name was Meher-Un-Nisá. During Akbar’s time, Burdwan⁽⁴⁾ was the capital of Bengal. It was during this time that she was married to the governor (or subedar) of Bengal, Sher Afgan. Selim, the son of Akbar’s Rajput wife (later known as Jáhángiir after ascending the throne), put pressure on Sher Afgan to surrender Meher-Un-Nisá to him but Sher Afgan did not agree and so there was a fierce battle in Burdwan between Sher Afgan and the Mughal army.⁽⁵⁾ Sher Afgan was slain in the battle (his grave is still in Burdwan city) and Jáhángiir forcibly abducted Meher-Un-Nisá by force. At first Meher-Un-Nisá refused to marry her husband’s killer, Jáhángiir, but later, under the pressure of circumstance, she agreed.

After her marriage to Jáhángiir her new name became Núrjáhán. Jáhángiir was an unstable drunkard; India was actually ruled by Núrjáhán. Both Rájiyá Begum during Pathan rule and Núrjáhán during Mughal rule, became famous as especially skilled female administrators. But the name of Núrjáhán is more famous for iitr. Núrjáhán was also a highly skilled poet⁽⁶⁾ in the Farsi language.

Speaking about iitr reminds me of an experience from the old days. I was staying in an average hotel in the city of Gaya doing research on the culture and civilization of Magadha. At the time I was working in the hilly wilds around Gaya searching for the deep, hidden similarities between the pre-Buddhist Magadha civilization and the ancient civilization of Rarh. I had found a striking similarity between the two and had never before felt such excitement and enthusiasm in my research. In terms of my river valley research I was concentrating then on the Naeraiṋjaná-Mohaniyá-Phalgu River basin.

The hotel was small but neat, clean and orderly, as if someone’s house had been turned into a hotel. I arrived there about six in the evening, took a good look at the bedroom and the bathroom, and then, after finishing some important work, I retired early, tired after the day’s labours. Sleep came on quickly. Ah yes, before sleeping I noticed a white stone iitr-pot in one corner of the dressing table, a Gayan artifact of ancient Mágadhii culture. I could tell that the iitr-pot had not been used in a long time because it did not smell at all of iitr.

Sometime later, I’m not sure exactly what time it was, I was awakened by a strange sensation just above the ankle. There was a dim light in the room – the rest of the lights I had turned off before going to bed. What did I see in that dim light when I looked down but what looked like a pair of hands catching me just above the ankles! I freed my legs with a jerk and called out in Magahii: “Who are you? Why have you come into my room like this? This is not good.”

The two hands drew back. Then I saw a shadowy figure slowly move back into the dark part of the room and lose itself behind the dressing table. I quickly got up, turned on the lights and thoroughly searched the bedroom and the bathroom as well as the closet but no one was there. The door was still locked from the inside as I had left it, which meant that nobody had come in from outside. Then what was it? Whose hands was it with their indistinct touch? And those hands had left the scent of jasmine essence!

Keeping the light on I lay down and called out mentally: “Hey, bodiless one, have courage, come out once again. I never do anyone any harm, so there is no possibility of you being harmed by me. Come and tell me your untold story.” But nothing or no one came out.

Then suddenly I see… what is this? Astonishing! Smoke is rising out of that abandoned iitr-pot. But how? And that smoke was filled with the scent of jasmine. I was dumbfounded. Gradually the smoke began to twist into coils. They became denser and denser, but what was behind those coils of smoke could not be seen or understood.

After a short time the smoke began to thin and what did I see behind the coils but a young man of good breeding, perhaps twenty-four or twenty-five years old. He looked at me and greeted me politely with folded hands, stood silently for a while, then softly made his way towards the door. He opened the locked door and quietly went outside. I found this all very mysterious.

He went down the stairs from the first floor to the ground floor but his footsteps were completely silent. He was walking but no sound was coming. I also followed silently behind him, determined not to leave him until I found out who he was… for what reason he had entered my room at one in the morning… what it was he wanted to say.

The main entry door to the hotel was locked, but he opened it and went straight out into the street. I was following right behind him but he never turned back to look. The city was dead quiet. Not even a dog was awake and about. He walked on and so did I. Not far from the hotel was the Phalgu River, and after a short time he reached the river and stopped. He stood there silently for a short time, then turned around to look at me and said in Magahii: “I have given you trouble… quite a lot of trouble… please don’t mind.”

“What trouble have you given me?” I replied. “I followed you of my own accord. I wanted to see what your destination would be.”

“I entered and left your room abruptly and came here for no other reason than that you would follow behind me.”

“I have come to hear what you have to say,” I said. “Tell me briefly whatever it is you want to say.”

He looked around once carefully in all directions and then began. “At the moment there is no one here besides the two of us; in these surroundings my words will make a stronger impression.

“I am a child of Magadha. History has never done full justice to this land of Magadha. Every dust particle of its villages and markets is mixed with the gold-dust of its heritage but no one has properly recognized it or recorded it. The little that has been written about it has been written by foreign historians – some out of sport, some out of merriment. The shrivelled Phalgu that you see today was not always in this condition. The hills of southern Magadha were once covered with dense forests. Beyond the mountains, from the north to the south, the Mágadhii river valley was also covered with thick forests. Even a portion of the plains and the banks of the river were also forested. This heavily-forested Magadha used to enjoy an abundance of rainfall and thus the rivers were full of water twelve months out of the year. Because of the abundance of forests there was no problem of soil erosion, and because the forests contained the water there was very little severe flooding. Seeing the Magadha of today, it is difficult to imagine the lush green Magadha that once was.

“You are certainly aware of the fact that Magadha was once a vast empire. At the time of Ashoka and Samudragupta it was probably the largest empire in the world but nothing lasts forever. Those glorious days came to an end and a cimmerian darkness descended over Magadha. The most difficult days in Magadha’s history drew nigh during the reign of Skandagupta.”

“Tell me a little more, in brief.”

He went on. “Skandagupta was one in a string of unworthy sovereigns to occupy the throne of Magadha. At that time the empire had disintegrated and the kingdom was on the point of collapse, confined to its ancient borders. To the north was the Ganges and north of that Mithila, which was at one time part of the empire of Magadha and which Rarh’s King Shasháuṋka had wrested from the hands of Magadha. To the east were the Grdhrakút́a and Cakravarttii mountains. In the eastern region of the Grdhrakút́a Mountains was Angadesh and the Magadha Empire. King Shasháuṋka of Rarh also took possession of these areas. In the eastern regions of the Cakravarttii Mountains was the land of Rarh, which came under Shasháuṋka’s direct rule. The southeast corner’s border was Sametashikhar. After that was ancient Rarh, which the king of Rarh had conquered. The southern portion of the Ramgarh Mountains to the south and the western portion of the Shońa River to the west were first controlled by the king of Kashii, Citrasena. After his fall, this entire area was controlled by the royal house of Thániishvar. Magadha did not have a direct struggle with Prabhákaravarddhana but rather with Rájyavarddhana and Harśavarddhana.

“ I’ve gone on quite a bit about the borders of Magadha at that time. I hope you didn’t mind. Without it the picture would not be complete.”

“Go on,” I said. “I am enjoying listening.”

“Magadha had lost all its previous power and glory,” he continued. “King Skandagupta was a weak-minded, vacillating drunkard. He did very little of what we normally consider great deeds; rather he led Magadha to the brink of destruction.

“Of course, nothing in this world is completely one-sided. No matter how much historians blame him, Skandagupta did some good also. This city of Gaya, which we are standing in the heart of, was designed by him. He founded Sanskrit schools and training centres in various parts of Magadha, such as Dvádashavarddhaká (Váravigha), Brhaddhiká (Vaŕahiyá), Madhukamadhá (Mokámá), Urubilva (Arabál), Grdhrakút́a (Gidhaoŕ), and so forth, which endured for quite some time. He was the first to introduce the use of the Mágadhii language of that time (Western Demi-Mágadhii) in government service alongside Sanskrit. Still, he watched the Magadha Empire crumble in front of his eyes. He died watching an entire empire fall apart due to his own incompetence.

“At that time there was a fierce struggle going on for the capture of Magadha between King Rájyavarddhana of the royal house of Thániisvar and Rarh’s King Shasháuṋka. Thánisvara’s kings used to repeatedly move their capital from place to place, but Shasháuṋka did not. Rather, he would enlarge his capital according to necessity and befitting the times. He founded Paiṋcagaorh [the five ancient parts of Bengal] after capturing Anga and Mithilá and then North Bengal (Barendra), Central Bengal (Samatat́) and East Bengal (Vauṋga). That is, during his time Bengal was divided into five political divisions: (1) Rarh, (2) Mithilá, (3) Samatat́, (4) Barendra, and (5) Vauṋga-D́abák (East Bengal or Shriibhúmi or Cat́t́al was then included in Bengal) – but he kept his capital at Karńasuvarńa.⁽⁷⁾

“There were several reasons for the war between Rájyavarddhana and Shasháuṋka. Rájyavarddhana’s aims were to plunder Magadha’s wealth and to take possession of Angabhumi. Shasháuṋka’s main aims were to take possession of Angabhúmi and to root out the Buddhist religion and culture from Magadha. Although Rájyavarddhana put on a show of liberality he was really narrow-minded. In actual fact, he never treated the Shaivite religion as equal to the Buddhist religion. Shasháuṋka was a staunch follower of Shaivism and completely against Buddhism. He openly declared that as long as one drop of blood remained in his body, he would not allow Buddhism the right to enter either Rarh nor Paiṋcagaoŕa,⁽⁸⁾ or Bengal.

“I am sure you are familiar with Ambabhúmi,⁽⁹⁾ which is situated in the western part of our Magadha. Ambabhúmi was the ancient name of that fertile region (modern name Mokáma T́ál) composed of the western areas of what is now Monghyr District – Surajagaŕá, Lakśmiisarái, Váravighá, Vaŕahiyá, and so on; the eastern portion of Patna district, especially Mokámá and surrounding areas; the eastern part of present-day Nálanda District; and the northeast areas of present-day Nawada District. There was no other region in all of India which was as fertile and as affluent at that time. Thus everyone had their greedy eyes set on Ambabhúmi. Rájyavarddhana and Shasháuṋka were no exceptions.

“Their style of attack, however, differed. Rájyavarddhana wanted to plunder wealth, so he would set fire to people’s houses and ransack them. Shasháuṋka’s aim was to destroy Buddhist monasteries (what are now called gaŕa in modern Magahii) and Mahayana Buddhist images and idols. You are certainly aware of the fact that, according to social and religious regulations, idols can no longer be used for worship once there is any defect or deformation in them. So Shasháuṋka had the different statues of Buddhist gods and goddesses deformed with a chisel. Today you will find that most of the ancient Buddhist religious statues still in existence have had their noses broken off.

“Foreign historians claim that they were damaged during the time of Baktiar Khiljii, or Kálápáháŕ.⁽¹⁰⁾ Although there is a grain or two of truth in this, it is, for the most part, a false assertion. They were actively fostering conflict between the Hindus and Muslims of our country, because they followed the policy of ‘divide and rule’. Actually Shasháuṋka was responsible. He was not interested in looting. In this way, with Rájyavarddhana burning his way from the west and Shasháuṋka applying pressure from the east, the two of them brought Magadha to its last gasp.

“Now the sacred banyan tree that you were sitting under yesterday was not the real Bodhi Tree where Siddhartha attained enlightenment. Ashoka’s son, Mahendra, took a branch from the original tree and brought it to Sri Lanka. That branch grew into a second Bodhi Tree in Sri Lanka and a branch was taken from that second tree and brought here and planted. This Bodhi Tree was produced from that branch. Shasháuṋka not only extirpated that ancient Bodhi Tree, he also dug a deep ditch around it afterwards and filled it with honey so that the ants would come and eat whatever remained of the roots while they devoured the honey; as a result that Bodhi Tree could not grow back again.

“This is the history of my Magadha of those times.”

“You can’t be very old,” I said. “One could say that you are still a lad, so how is it you know so much? There was no clear or formulated system of studying or teaching history in those days. The study and teaching of history in India was first provided for by Emperor Násiruddiin during Pathan rule and by several foreign travellers during the Mughal era. Thus there were no history books in either Sanskrit or any of the Prákrta languages. The real beginning of the teaching and study of history came during the time of British rule. So the things you have been talking about have never been properly recorded.”

“I am not saying all this myself,” he replied. “I am thinking about you and whatever you are thinking about is coming out through my mouth.”

“I appreciate your competence and erudition very much,” I said.

“As a result of the clash between Shasháuṋka and Rájyavarddhana,” he continued, “the amount of harm that Magadha suffered was doubled. It would be a mistake to say that neither one wanted to see the other; neither one of them could even stand hearing the other’s name. Shasháuṋka, in an unexpected development, captured Kányakubja, slew its king, Cakráyúdha (in some people’s opinion, Inráyudha), the husband of Rájyavarddana’s sister, Rájyashrii, and installed his own nephew from Rarh, Keshariivijaya, on the throne, giving him the name Indráyúdha (some say Cakráyúdha). Rájyashrii returned to her father’s house and instigated her brothers, Rájyavarddhana and Harśavarddhana, to turn against Rarh. As a result, Magadha, which lay between those two lands, had to suffer many outrages. This is our Magadha.

“Mag means ‘he who moves about independently’, that is, one who does not follow the Vedic injunctions. Dha means ‘follower’. The land which follows the anti-Vedic, Buddhist doctrine is magadha. The Sanskrit dha is transformed into ha in Prákrta. Thus magadha becomes magaha – the name of the language is magahii. Following the Buddhist era, the language of all of eastern India was this Magahii Prákrta. Lord Buddha, The Enlightened, made his appearence in this land.

“Our Magadha is situated in the northeast corner of the prehistoric Gondwanaland. Since Gondwanaland is the oldest land on earth, it is also the original home of human beings, the birthplace of human civilization. Rarh is in eastern Gondwanaland. In the prehistoric era, human beings came from Rarh to make their home in Magadha and they brought with them the current of their civilization and culture. Just as the geography of Magadha slopes downwards from north to south and the rivers flow from north to south, similarly the culture and civilization flowed from south to north. Thus the people of Rarh and Magadha are fundamentally one. Like the people of Rarh, the common people of Magadha are dark-skinned. Magadha borders Rarh along its south-east border. The skin and bodily structure of the people of Rarh and Magadha are identical. There is also a noticeable similarity between their languages.

“Earlier I told you that in those days Magadha was full of forests and had abundant rainfall so there was no need of irrigation. The pre-Aryan people of Magadha used to believe that their land received rainfall due to the grace of the sun-god. Thus they used to worship the sun-god according to their ancient local customs, once during the autumn paddy harvest and again during the spring sun harvest (chaetii harvest). This sun-worship of pre-Aryan Magadha is known today as chat́ pújá. This worship was not performed according to Aryan rules. It was a completely local Magadha practice. The people of Magadha did not bow their heads and submissively accept any of the Aryan practices. For that reason the Aryans called the land magadha. They were afraid of Magadha and used to pay it respect. Thus, to satisfy their grudge and vent their spite, they declared Magadha an unholy land. They said that if a man died there he would not go to heaven and they made efforts to forcibly impose their language, culture and civilization on Magadha. It is up to the historians and social scientists to consider just how successful they were in their efforts.

“Magadha did not accept the Aryan civilization. In ancient Magadha there was no custom of racial or caste divisions. The caste system in Magadha came much later due to the influence of the Aryans. Even after the advent of the caste system, the Kraoiṋcadviipii and Magadha’s Shrotriya Brahmins did not like the severity of caste divisions. For this reason the Kraoiṋcadviipii and Magadha’s Shrotriya Brahmins were not recognized by the Brahmins of northern India.”

The boy looked at me and said with a choked voice, “You know, today Magadha is torn apart by caste differences. I want to hear from your lips if Magadha has a future or not.”

“Why are you weeping?” I asked. “Why are you thinking in this way? I tell you, Magadha has a bright future. Magadha will once again break down the walls of narrow-mindedness and hold its head high in the world community. Magadha’s past was bright and its future will be radiant.”

He was consoled and happy.

“It was an unbelievable and unforgettable happening. Nearly two and a half thousand years ago two great spiritual leaders appeared on the earth at about the same time on the soil of Magadha to sow there the seeds of their spiritual teachings. One was Vardhamána Maháviira and the other was Gaotama Buddha. Gaotama Buddha was the son of the feudal king of the central terai, Shuddhodana (Malla dynasty, Shákya branch of the Kśatriyas), and his wife Máyádevii. He practised austerities for a long time in Magadha in the areas of the Barábar, Brahmayoni and Grdhrakút́ mountains. His Guru in Sáḿkhya philosophy, Ácárya Saiṋjaya (Nawada district), was also from Magadha. Although what is called avidya in his philosophy is not the same as pradhána or prakrti in Sáḿkhya, there is some similarity between the Buddha’s concept of avidya and the Sáḿkhya concept of pradhána.

“The Buddha attained enlightenment in the village of Urubilva, located on the bank of the river Naeraiṋjaná (Urubilva is called Bodhgaya today). That Sujátá who fed him kśiira [rice pudding] and saved his life at that moment when the period of his radiant austerities had brought him to the point of death, was Buddha’s cousin and the wife of a certain feudal king of Magadha. One should remember here that at that time the Naeraiṋjaná river coming from the south joined the Mohaniká (Mohaniyá) river near Urubilva and flowed together as the Phalgu river from there, later joining the Ganges near Modhukamadhá (Mokámá). About 2000 years ago the two rivers underwent some physical changes due to a huge earthquake and for that reason the Phalgu river of today is much smaller than it was.

“At any rate the prince of the Shakyas, Gaotama, attained enlightenment on Magadha soil. Many say that Buddha first introduced the Buddhist dharmacakra [wheel of dharma] and initiated his first disciple near Benares in the Iśipattana Migadába (Rśipattana deer grove, alias Sáranganáth or Sáranáth). Although this is partially correct, it is not the complete truth. It is certainly true that he introduced the dharmacakra in the Iśipattana deer grove and that his five disciples, Kaońd́inya (Kaońdilya), Bappa (Vapra), Bhaddiiya (Bhadreya), Mohánáma, and Ashsháji (Ashvajit), were present there. But he gave his first initiations on Magadha soil – to Sáriputta, the son of Rúpasári, and Mahámoggallan Arhan, the son of Mahámoggalii.

“In those days Magadha’s matriarchal system still retained some influence alongside the patriarchal system. So Buddha’s first two disciples in Magadha were known by their mother’s names. The merchant that the city of Pát́aliiputra was named after due to his philanthropy also carried his mother’s name in accordance with the matriarchal system. The name of the merchant’s mother was Pát́alii.

“Varddhamán Maháviira was born in Vaeshálii in a Vaeshya family. His father’s name was Siddhártha and his mother’s name was Trishalá. Like the Buddha, however, he did not propagate his teachings first in his native land but came to Magadha to do so.

“One does not have to go far to find the reason why both of them selected Magadha as the proper place for their work. Magadha was not bound hand and foot with the bonds of the Vedic religion. Their natural liberal mentality gushed forth in all aspects of their lives. Buddha was successful in spreading his spiritual teachings there because they were based more on logic than on superstition and belief. Of course, the spirit of revolt against conventionality was present in Varddhanamána Maháviira’s teachings also, but in the opinion of the Magahii people his doctrine of ahiḿsá [non-violence] did not accord well with reality so they were not able to accept it easily. Of course, some people did accept it, but others considered him an unrealistic theoretician and tried to bring him down to earth by using occult powers. Thus he felt the need to go elsewhere to propagate his new religion.

“At that time the most famous city for progressive thinking, education and culture was Ástikanagar (Atthinagar), the capital of Rarh. Varddhamán Maháviira went there and stayed nearly eight years. There he managed to fit his doctrine of ahiḿsá into a somewhat realistic framework. Some prominent merchants of Ástikanagar accepted his doctrine and they renamed the city Varddhamán [Burdwan] after him. Thus it is said that the Jain religion was first established in Rarh.

“Thereafter he took the road back to Magadha from Burdwan and stopped for a short time in a small village named Svámiisthána (Svámiisthán → Sáinchitthán → Sáinchithiinchá → Sainthiyá) on the banks of the Mayúrákśii River to preach his gospels. By then he was an elderly man, while Gaotama Buddha was still a young man. He breathed his last in Pávápurii on Magadha soil.

“There were many in North India who did not appreciate this free mentality of Magadha. They did not spare any efforts to belittle Magadha in the eyes of the people but Magadha was not discouraged by this.

“The seven Prákrta languages that arose after the demise of Sanskrit were as follows:

1. Maháráśt́rii Prákrta which was the forerunner of Konkańii, Márát́hi, Vaedarbhii (Várárii), etc.

2. Málavii Prákrta which was the forerunner of Gujrátii, Saoráśt́rii, Kacchii, Málavii, Mevárii, Haŕaotii and Máravárii.

3. Saendhavii or Saobiirii Prákrta which gave rise to Sindhii and Múlatánii. 4. Páshcáttya Prákrta which was the forerunner of Pashtu, Káshmiirii, Uzbekii, Tázákii, etc.

5. Paeshácii Prákrta which was the forerunner of D́ogrii, Páhárii, and Punjabi.

6. Shaorasenii Prákrta which was the forerunner of Hindi, Abadhii, Bundelii, Bághelii, and Vraja.

7. Mágadhii Prákrta which was the forerunner of Magahii, Bengali, Oriya, Angika, Assamese, Nágpurii, Maethilii, Chatrishgaŕii and Bhojpurii.

“This Mágadhii Prákrta had two daughters – Eastern Demi-Mágadhii and Western Demi-Mágadhii. Western Demi-Mágadhii later gave birth to the Magahii language. At one time Mágadhii Prákrta was used not only in eastern India, but in central India as well among the educated community for the exchange of thoughts. Educated people used to show the same zeal for learning Mágadhii Prákrta as they showed for learning Sanskrit. The structure of the Mágadhii Prákrta language is both straighforward and easy. The grammar is also not complex. Both Maháviira and Buddha gave their teachings in the Mágadhii Prákrta of that time which many people today call Páli. A great deal of literature was composed in the Páli language and its successor Occidental Demi-Mágadhii. Magadha also had its own script. Inscriptions in that ancient Mágadhii script can still be found in certain places in Bodhgaya. It is the younger sister of the Shriiharśa script and closely related to modern Maethilii (Tirahutii) script and Bengali script.”

The young man looked at me and smiled. “You know what the sad thing is? Today many educated people in Magadha are ashamed of speaking their mother tongue. They think that it is perhaps a rustic language, unsuitable for respectable society. Yet this Mágadhii – Occidental Demi-Mágadhii – was once the language of state administration. Who else can I tell this sad tale to?

“Just as Magadha’s language has its own style of pronunciation and syntax, its popular culture also shines with originality. Today this popular culture is being swept away but do you know what is even sadder? At one time Magadha had a sound economic infrastructure but since the time of Skandagupta that infrastructure has crumbled. Today, wherever you look, you see a stark picture of poverty and distress. There is no plan for economic development. The young people of Magadha do not have any economic legs to stand on. Magadha has not been built up; rather, for 1500 years it has been hammered into the dust.”

The young man looked at me again and said in a tearful voice: “You know it maddens me to think about Magadha. Anyhow, as I was saying, the war was going on between Rarh and Thánishvara, and Magadha, lying between the two, was being destroyed. Shasháuṋka was an intelligent and courageous man. He built a large army through whatever means he had at his disposal and took Rájyavarddhana by surprise when his adversary was temporarily absent from his capital, taking possession of the city. After this he waged a fierce war against Rájyavarddhana in which Rájyavarddhana was defeated and slain. Some people claim that under the pretence of a truce, Shasháuṋka extended an invitation to Rájyavarddhana, and then either stabbed or poisoned him when he came. One can say what one wants in this matter but there is no sound historical evidence that Shasháuṋka killed Rájyavarddhana unfairly.

“After Shasháuṋka retuned to Rarh, Rájyavarddhana’s brother, Harśavarddhana, liberated his kingdom once again and continued the struggle with Shasháuṋka. As long as Shasháuṋka was alive the war against Thánishvara continued without pause. And so there was no end to Magadha’s distress.

“After Shasháuṋka’s death his widow, Jayashankarii (in some people’s opinion, Triguńáshankarii), ruled Rarh along with Paiṋcagaorh or Bengal after installing his under-age son, Mrgánkashekhara, as the crown prince. Haŕsavarddhana did not let this opportunity go by and struck a powerful blow against Rarh. War ensued and after two sanguinary battles at Nalhát́i and Parkat́iipur (Pákuŕ), Rarh fell under Harśavarddhana’s control. The same Harśavarddhana who has achieved everlasting fame in India, who, as legend has it, was known for his generosity and who, in some people’s opinion, was the founder of the Kumbhamelá and the Mághamelá, also killed Rarh’s Queen Jayashankarii and her under-age son, Mrgánkashekhara, with his own hand, and utterly exploited Magadha, tossing it aside like a worn-out banana peel. According to the scriptures, the elderly, women, the sick, the disabled, conscientious dissenters, under-age men, and emissaries must not be killed. Harśavarddhana blatantly violated this scriptural injunction. Both the people of Bengal and the people of Magadha condemned and censured him for this.

“As long as Shasháuṋka was alive he did not allow the Buddhist religion into Rarh. After the defeat of Bengal by Harśavarddhana, Buddhism, despite not enjoying his open support, became predominant, due to the tremendous indirect support he gave it. In their hearts the people remained Shaivites but on the outside they became Buddhists. Later on, during the time of Shankaracharya, a small number of Rarh’s Jains and large numbers of Buddhists throughout Bengal accepted the Puranic religion. This may have been because in Rarh there was some similarity between the traditions of the Puranic religion and the Digambar Jain doctrine of that time. So Harśavarddhana dealt a strong blow to the religious thought of Rarh, as well as Bengal, and by exploiting Magadha brought it to its lowest point.”

The boy looked at me again and said in a choked voice: “Now tell me, who can I express this to? Today I’ve poured out my heart to you.”

“Go on, go on,” I said. “Don’t hold anything back.”

“Magadha’s misery is not a recent thing. It dates back to the time of Harśavarddhana. The people of Magadha have tried to pull themselves up from time to time but after so many blows they’ve had their back broken. Now they can no longer stand up straight at all.”

“I am really moved by your sincerity, overwhelmed. There should be more boys like you all over Magadha.”

He continued. “While returning back after defeating Bengal, Harśavarddhana tried to pulverize Magadha into submission even more. He knew about Magadha’s tradition and was afraid that Magadha might overthrow his throne. At that time Magadha’s last general, Agnimitra, and his younger brother, Chandraketu, were directing its final efforts to resist Harśavarddhana and a great war ensued. In the battle of Barábar Hill, near the city of Gaya, Magadha’s army was utterly routed and destroyed. Even then Agnimitra did not accept defeat. His final confrontation with Harśavarddhana was at Brahmayoni Mountain in Gaya; in this battle Agnimitra was killed.”

The young man stopped again, then continued falteringly. “You know, people say that Agnimitra’s relatives, friends and neighbours offered sesame, water and so forth to the gods so that his soul would go to heaven but Agnimitra did not attain salvation. As long as Magadha does not regain its lost glory, Agnimitra will not get salvation. Even if he gets it he will not accept it.”

He went on in a halting voice. “You know, it was in this very spot that the funeral pyre burned for Agnimitra’s cremation. The boy stopped speaking. I looked at him but somehow he had vanished and a funeral pyre was burning in his place. The flames of the pyre were rising from the soil of Magadha and scattering these words on the winds: ‘I will never let Magadha die.’

I looked around but there was no one there. Seeing no reason to remain there I started back for the hotel. I met no one on the way; not even the animals were awake. The main entry door of the hotel was open. I went inside and closed it, then went up to the second floor and headed for my room. I went inside, locked it and laid down unperturbed. I lay there thinking for a while and began feeling sleepy. Then I seemed to hear a voice coming from the direction of the incense burner on the dressing table. “Do you know, I forgot to tell you. I am Agnimitra. I can’t tell you how happy I am that you are doing research on my Magadha. I took hold of your leg so that I would have a chance to talk to you. Please forgive my audacity. I would like to request you to come back to Magadha as often as you can. Try to awaken the consciousness of its people. Talk about it, write about it, and promise me” – his voice surged with emotion – “that my Magadha will survive.”

“That Magadha which has given birth to noble persons such as yourself,” I replied, “will never perish. There is no power on earth that can destroy it.”

Átapa

The meaning of the verbal root tap is “to heat”, “to go through hardship”. Thus tapa means “to welcome hardship in order to accomplish something for the attainment of welfare (shreya)”. The word tapasyá comes from this word tapah (tapas). Tap + ac gives us tapa. That which brings heat is called átapa. If we add lyut́ to the verbal root tap we get the word tapana which means “to heat” or “that which heats”. If we add kta to tap we get tapta [hot]. Before the use of the Farsi word garam became prevalent in Bengali, the word tapta was used more. When I was a young boy I noticed that the old people of Burdwan district used to use the word tapta rather than garam (bhát ektu tapta áche, ektu vátás kare dii [the rice is a little hot, let me blow on it a little]). Just as the Farsi word garam was not used much at that time, the Turkish word havá (which is now spelled háoyá) was also not used much.

Sunlight brings warmth, thus sunlight or raodra is called átapa. The etymological meaning of the word raodra is “fierceness” or “violence”. From this word raodra we get the word raodá in Bihar and roda in Bengali and Angiká. So in old Bengali the word ugra was used for “hot”. In medieval Bengali the word became oggara.

Oggara bhattá rambháa pattá
Gaikka ghittá dugdha sajattá
Nália gacchá muallá macchá
Dijjai kantá kháy puńyavantá

[Hot rice is being served on banana plantain leaves along with ghee, carefully boiled cow’s milk, jute leaves, and maorala fish. The devoted wife is serving and the lucky husband is enjoying.]

The rice that we get by parboiling the paddy, then drying it and husking it with a husking pedal is called seddha [boiled] rice because the paddy is boiled in order to prepare it. In Bihar it is called uśná cáur. The rice we get by parboiling the paddy and drying it is called muŕi rice. And that rice which is not boiled at all but which is washed and then left in the sun to dry is called átapa cál or álo cál because it has been dried in átapa and not boiled. In the same way you can have both seddha and átapa varieties of beaten rice. Widows did not eat rice outside their home because it was cooked. For the same reason seddha rice and seddha beaten rice was not used for worship.

Because the paddy for making seddha rice is boiled, it is somewhat malleable. Thus it breaks less at the time of husking. Because the átap paddy is relatively less malleable it breaks more during husking and leaves more broken bits of grain. In the olden days in Bengal the broken bits of grain from átapa rice were also sold in the market at a good rate. People used to like to use these broken bits for cooking rice pudding.

Átas

The word átas is incorrect. The correct word is átiish; it can also be spelled átiis. Átiish means “pertaining to inflagration” or “explosive” or “pertaining to explosives” or “pyrotating”. It is hard to say how it has become distorted in Bengal and become átas. Rather than saying átasbáji [fireworks], we should say átiisabáji.

Ádarsha/Ádarshii

Á – drsh + ghaiṋ = ádarsha: that which we keep in front of us or watch, and follow while we act. In ancient times, when there was no scope for printing, that authentic manuscript that the pandits would place in front of themselves and transcribe or copy was called the ádarsha manuscript. Whenever some person or individual was held up before others so that they could watch him and do as he did, or try to emulate him, then that individual was called ádarsha puruśa.

In the Vedic language, ádarsha means “mirror”. In laokik [comparitively recent] Sanskrit the word ádarshii was more common, but that is not to say that the word ádarsha was not used at all. Still it is true that in laokik Sanskrit the words mukura and darpańa were more prevalent than ádarsha/ádarshii. In the Vedic language it is said:

Yathá’’darshe tathá’’tmani
Yathá svapne tathá pitrloke

Yathá’psu puriivadadrshe tathá gandharvaloke
Cháyátapayoriva brahmaloke

It is said about the way in which the Paramátmá [Supreme Soul] can be seen in the átmá: In the same way that something can be seen in a mirror, a person can see the Paramátmá by analysing the átmá. The Paramátmá can be seen in heaven in the same way that an entity is seen in a dream. Just as a reflection is seen in water, Parama Puruśa can be found in the gandharvaloka, that is, in the study of musical science. And just as sunlight can be seen or understood next to shadow, Parama Puruśa can be found in brahmaloka. Here yathá’’darshe means “like in a mirror”, that is, the word adarsha is used in the sense of ádarshii. Ádarshii → áarashii → árashii.

In modern Bengali there is no derived form in use that come from the laokik Sanskrit words mukura and darpańa. However, the word dápańa, which is derived from darpańa (darpana → dappana → dápana), was prevalent in Old Bengali.

Háther káḿkań má leu dápan
Apane appa bujhta nia mana

That is, someone who wears a bracelet on her wrist has no need to look in a mirror [dápan] to see it. In the same way, one does not need to take the help of a third party in order to understand one’s own mind.

Ánanda

Á – nand (nadi) + ac = ánanda. The verbal root nand (nadi) is Vedic and means “to get pleasure”, “to feel at ease”, “to swell with emotion”. The etymological meaning of ánanda is “that which, when obtained, creates a flow of bliss”.

Whatever one does in this world, one does in order to get pleasure. A person becomes greedy for tasty food because by eating it that person gets pleasure. Someone has a weakness for earning name and fame because that person gets pleasure through the medium of name and fame. Another person forgets everything in his greed for money because his avarice gives him pleasure. If someone’s mind becomes very negative and he thinks that he will get happiness by not living, then he will commit suicide.

Many people use the name of Shrii Krśńa’s foster-father, Nanda Ghośa, in a metaphorical sense. They say that nanda means “to overflow with joy”. The joy that overflows when one attains God is nanda and the word ghośa means “to proclaim”. He who proclaims the attainment of God is nanda ghośa. The word ghośa can be used for many different kinds of proclamations. “Milk for sale; yoghurt for sale!” When someone calls out in this way to sell milk or yoghurt it is one kind of proclamation. As such, one can use the word ghośa for what they are doing. If someone protests against someone’s name and fame he also proclaims. And if someone extols someone’s virtues then that praise is also a type of proclaiming. Whichever way you take the word ghośa, it is personal decision. I have nothing to say about it, no objections one way or another.

Speaking of “no objections one way or another”, one event comes to mind from the life of the Buddha. At the time the Buddha was propagating his teaching in the villages near Hatthiigrám.⁽¹¹⁾ Usually he would deliver his sermons in a mango grove. The place where he gave his spiritual talks would generally be known afterwards by the name of sońvarśá (suvarńavarśa [the golden place]). Those villages in which he spent the night would usually be given the name dharáhará (dharahará).

This time a certain wealthy youth was particularly attracted to his discourse and became his disciple. This youth had a friend, a certain rich merchant, who was engaged in antisocial activities. After his friend became a disciple of the Buddha, this rich merchant found himself alone and missing his companion in crime. Finally, unable to restrain himself, he went to where the Buddha was giving his discourses. When he drew near the Buddha, he started to use rude language and insult him. The Buddha only smiled. Finally the fellow became tired and said: “Look, I have abused you so much, yet I have not seen the slightest reaction on your part. All my insults are in vain. You could at least get a little angry. Put up some strong protest, then I’ll be satisifed.”

The Buddha chuckled and said: “Look. Let’s say you want to give somebody a lakh of rupees. If the person accepts the offered money then who does it belong to?”

The rich merchant answered in reply: “Why, the person to whom I gave the money.”

“Now let us say he does not accept the money. He says, ‘I am unwilling to accept your gift.’ Then who does the money belong to?”

The rich youth replied: “Then my wealth stays with me.”

Then the Buddha smiled and said: “The whole time that you were hurling your abuse I was unwilling to accept it. You can keep it.”

“Good Lord! What will I do with so much hateful abuse?” the man said.

“You can wear it proudly as an ornament or use it for whatever else you like,” the Buddha replied. “I have nothing to say about it, no objections one way or the other.”

So you can use or take whichever of the meanings of ghośa that I’ve given according to your desire. I have nothing to say about it, no objections one way or the other.

The sages have said that Parama Puruśa has created this universe from a perennial fount of bliss.

Ánandáddhyeva khalvimáni bhútáni jáyante;
Ánandena játáni jiivanti ánandaḿ prayantyabhisaḿvishanti vá.

Having created the world, I get joy from the creation of innumerable bubbles in divine sport and dance. Thinking this, Parama Puruśa has created the world and continues to do so. By maintaining the creation He gets bliss and the created beings living in the world also get bliss. By appropriating the sportful essence of the created world, Parama Puruśa gets bliss, and the created being gets bliss when he loses himself in Parama Puruśa in the supreme stance of the divine play.

Since Parama Puruśa destroys the creation or since the created being is completely lost in Parama Puruśa, Parama Puruśa’s last name is Saḿharttá, and as the preserver his middle name is Viśńu. Viśńu means “that which permeates and takes good care of everything”. And as he is well-saturated by the seed of creation, a, the name of the first stage of the creator is Brahmá. Thus the sole duty of intelligent and judicious beings is karmańá manasá vácá, to keep oneself in ánanda and to conjoin the living being, world and God in the flow of ánanda.

There is a heaven and hell difference between pleasure [sukha] and bliss [ánanda]. Yet, by way of explanation, one may say that bliss is the state of endless pleasure. Ánanda is above both negativity and positivity. Ánanda is not confined to the arena of either one. It is the consummation of the two.

Ábhoga

Bhuiṋj + ghaiṋ = ábhoga. Ábhoga means “psychic pabulum”.

Áhiira

The word áhiira has come from the Sanskrit word ábhiira. Ábhiira means “the owner of a cow-shed”.⁽¹²⁾ A few áhiiras or owners of cow-sheds came to Calcutta long back from north India and settled in the northern part of the city. The area where they settled is still called áhiirat́olá.

Ratnákarastava grhaḿ grhińii ca padmá
deyaḿ kimapi bhavate puruśottamáya
Ábhiiravámanayanápahrtamánasáya
Dattaḿ yadupate tvamidaḿ grháńa

[Your abode is brimming over with gems and jewels. The goddess of fortune is Your housekeeper. What can I offer to You, Oh Lord? Oh yes, there is one thing that You lack, as it has been stolen by Your devotees; it is Your mind. I therefore offer my mind to You. Please accept it.]

Footnotes

(1) The original name of the country was Mahárliká or Mahárliiná, which means, etymologically, “small but great in glory”. When the Spanish took over the country they named it the Philippines after their King Philip.

(2) Sitá means “sugar”. Sita means “white”. Asita means “black”. The name of Ráma’s wife was Siitá. The word siitá means “land which has been tilled with a plough”. There is a story that Maharshi Janaka pulled Siitá from the bosom of the earth while he was ploughing his land. Thus he gave his foster daughter the name Siitá

(3) The entire universe. See page 4, brahmáńd́a. –Trans.

(4) At that time Burdwan was given the name Shariifábád or Bár-e-Diiván, however, ultimately the name did not last. In the pre-Jain era the city’s name was Ástikanagar or Atthinagar. Since the Jain era it has been called Vardhamána [British spelling Burdwan] after Vardhamána Maháviira.

(5) This battle took place between Curzon Gate and what is now the railway station of present-day Burdwan. There was a great loss of life and for a long time afterwards the people used to be afraid to go there alone after dark.

(6) Kavi [poet] in feminine gender is kavyá or kavii.

(7) In Birbhum, at the Rarh-Murshidábád border, on the present-day Nalhati-Azimaganj line.

(8) Although Shasháuṋka was the king of Paiṋcagaoŕa or Bengal, he started off as the king of Rarh. Thus he was better known as the king of Rarh.

(9) Even today, the Kayasthas of Ambabhúmi still use Ambaśt́ha as a surname.

(10) His former name was Kalimuddin Khan. At one time he was a zamindar of Bengal. His original name was Kálácánd Ray (Vandyopádhyáya).

(11) Its modern name is Hathoyá and it is situated in the Sárana district of Bihar.

(12) The place where many cows or buffaloes stay together is called báthán. The collective name of cows and buffaloes, or milk-giving animals, is cattle. The place where they stay is called báthán in colloquial language and gośt́ha in Sanskrit.